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What is Rutherford Scattering? How Protons and Neutrons Are Different and Ionisation Energy Trends

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What is Rutherford Scattering? How Protons and Neutrons Are Different and Ionisation Energy Trends
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Isabelle

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This transcript covers fundamental concepts in physical chemistry, focusing on atomic structure, isotopes, mass spectrometry, electron orbitals, ionization energy, molar calculations, and chemical bonding. It provides detailed explanations of various models and experimental techniques used to understand atomic and molecular properties.

Key points include:

  • Atomic models: Plum Pudding, Electron Shell, and Rutherford Scattering experiment explanation
  • Fundamental particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
  • Isotopes and mass spectrometry
  • Electron orbitals and configurations
  • Ionization energy trends and factors affecting ionisation energy trends
  • Molar calculations and the ideal gas equation
  • Chemical bonding types: covalent, coordinate, metallic, and ionic
  • Physical properties of different molecular structures

25/04/2023

266

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Electron Configuration and Ionization Energy

This page focuses on electron configuration and ionization energy, two interconnected concepts in atomic structure.

The page begins by explaining electron pairing and spin, using sodium as an example:

Example: Sodium has 11 electrons, which fill the orbitals in the order 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹.

The concept of electron spin is introduced, explaining that electrons pair up with opposite spins for stability. Exceptions to this rule are noted, where unpaired electron spins can lead to increased repulsion and instability.

The page then moves on to discuss ionization energy, defined as the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in a gaseous state.

Definition: Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in a gaseous state.

Factors affecting ionisation energy trends are explained:

  1. Across a period: Ionization energy increases due to increasing nuclear charge and decreasing atomic radius.
  2. Down a group: Ionization energy decreases due to increasing atomic radius and increased shielding.

Highlight: Successive ionization energies increase when further electrons are removed, as the remaining electrons experience a stronger attraction to the nucleus.

The page concludes by mentioning that sudden large increases in ionization energy indicate changes in energy levels.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Mass Spectrometry and Electron Orbitals

This page delves into mass spectrometry and electron orbitals, two crucial concepts in physical chemistry.

Mass spectrometry is explained as a technique used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element. The process involves several steps:

  1. Vaporization and ionization of the sample
  2. Acceleration of ions
  3. Ion drift through a magnetic field
  4. Detection of ions

Highlight: The greater the current detected, the higher the abundance of that particular ion.

The page then transitions to discussing electron orbitals, introducing the concept of electron clouds and the different types of orbitals: s-orbital, p-orbital, and d-orbital.

Definition: Electron orbitals are regions in an atom where electrons are most likely to be found.

The process of ionization is briefly mentioned, explaining that it occurs when an atom gains or loses an electron.

Vocabulary: Ionization is the process of an atom gaining or losing electrons to form an ion.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Atomic Structure and Fundamental Particles

This page introduces key concepts in atomic structure and fundamental particles. It covers the evolution of atomic models from the Plum Pudding Model to the Electron Shell Model, which was discovered through the Rutherford Scattering experiment.

The fundamental particles of an atom - protons, neutrons, and electrons - are described in terms of their relative charge and mass. The differences between proton and neutron mass are highlighted, with protons and neutrons having a relative mass of 1, while electrons have a much smaller mass of 1/1840.

Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

The concept of mass number and atomic number is introduced, using nitrogen as an example:

Example: For nitrogen-14:

  • Atomic number = 7
  • Mass number = 14
  • Proton number = 7
  • Neutron number = 14 - 7 = 7

The page concludes by explaining that the relative atomic mass is the mean mass of an atom of an element, taking into account the isotopes of that element.

Vocabulary: Relative atomic mass is defined as the mean mass of an atom divided by 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Chemical Bonding

This page covers different types of chemical bonding and their associated physical properties.

Four main types of chemical bonds are discussed:

  1. Covalent Bonds:

Definition: Covalent bonds form between two non-metals when electrons are shared to achieve a full outer shell.

  1. Coordinate (Dative) Bonds:

Definition: Coordinate bonds form when both electrons in the bond are supplied by a single atom.

  1. Metallic Bonds:

Definition: Metallic bonds consist of a lattice of positively charged ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.

  1. Ionic Bonds:

Definition: Ionic bonds form through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

The page then discusses the physical properties associated with each type of bonding:

Highlight: Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

Example: Metallic bonds allow for electrical conductivity because the delocalized electrons can carry current.

The page concludes by mentioning simple molecular structures, which are covalently bonded molecules held together by weak Van der Waals forces, resulting in low melting and boiling points.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Molar Calculations and the Ideal Gas Equation

This page covers molar calculations and introduces the Ideal Gas Equation, fundamental concepts in physical chemistry.

The page begins by defining relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative molecular mass (Mr):

Definition:

  • Ar = Mean mass of an atom of an element divided by 1/12th the mass of a C-12 atom
  • Mr = Mean mass of a molecule of a compound divided by 1/12th the mass of a C-12 atom

The concept of moles is introduced, along with Avogadro's constant:

Highlight: One mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10²³ particles (Avogadro's constant).

The page then presents the Ideal Gas Equation:

PV = nRT

Where:

  • P = Pressure (Pa)
  • V = Volume (m³)
  • n = number of moles
  • R = Ideal Gas Constant (8.31 JK⁻¹mol⁻¹)
  • T = Temperature (Kelvin)

Example: The Ideal Gas Equation can be used to calculate changes in pressure, volume, or temperature when the number of moles of gas changes.

The page concludes with formulas for calculating the number of moles and the number of particles in a substance.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Empirical and Molecular Formulas, Atom Economy

This page discusses empirical and molecular formulas, as well as the concept of atom economy in chemical reactions.

The difference between empirical and molecular formulas is explained:

Definition:

  • Empirical formula: The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
  • Molecular formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

The page provides steps to determine the empirical formula using percentage composition data and how to find the molecular formula using the empirical formula and the relative molecular mass.

The concept of atom economy is introduced:

Definition: Atom economy is the percentage of atoms from the reactants that end up in the desired product.

The formula for calculating atom economy is provided:

% Atom Economy = (Mr of desired product / Mr of all reactants) x 100

Highlight: High atom economy is desirable because it results in little or no waste product, making the process more economically viable.

The page concludes by emphasizing the importance of balancing chemical equations before using them in calculations.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

View

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Subjects

/

Chemistry

/

Physical chemistry

/

Atomic structure

/

Electron configuration

What is Rutherford Scattering? How Protons and Neutrons Are Different and Ionisation Energy Trends

user profile picture

Isabelle

@isabelle_study

·

11 Followers

Follow

This transcript covers fundamental concepts in physical chemistry, focusing on atomic structure, isotopes, mass spectrometry, electron orbitals, ionization energy, molar calculations, and chemical bonding. It provides detailed explanations of various models and experimental techniques used to understand atomic and molecular properties.

Key points include:

  • Atomic models: Plum Pudding, Electron Shell, and Rutherford Scattering experiment explanation
  • Fundamental particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons
  • Isotopes and mass spectrometry
  • Electron orbitals and configurations
  • Ionization energy trends and factors affecting ionisation energy trends
  • Molar calculations and the ideal gas equation
  • Chemical bonding types: covalent, coordinate, metallic, and ionic
  • Physical properties of different molecular structures

25/04/2023

266

 

12/13

 

Chemistry

16

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Electron Configuration and Ionization Energy

This page focuses on electron configuration and ionization energy, two interconnected concepts in atomic structure.

The page begins by explaining electron pairing and spin, using sodium as an example:

Example: Sodium has 11 electrons, which fill the orbitals in the order 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹.

The concept of electron spin is introduced, explaining that electrons pair up with opposite spins for stability. Exceptions to this rule are noted, where unpaired electron spins can lead to increased repulsion and instability.

The page then moves on to discuss ionization energy, defined as the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in a gaseous state.

Definition: Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in a gaseous state.

Factors affecting ionisation energy trends are explained:

  1. Across a period: Ionization energy increases due to increasing nuclear charge and decreasing atomic radius.
  2. Down a group: Ionization energy decreases due to increasing atomic radius and increased shielding.

Highlight: Successive ionization energies increase when further electrons are removed, as the remaining electrons experience a stronger attraction to the nucleus.

The page concludes by mentioning that sudden large increases in ionization energy indicate changes in energy levels.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Mass Spectrometry and Electron Orbitals

This page delves into mass spectrometry and electron orbitals, two crucial concepts in physical chemistry.

Mass spectrometry is explained as a technique used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element. The process involves several steps:

  1. Vaporization and ionization of the sample
  2. Acceleration of ions
  3. Ion drift through a magnetic field
  4. Detection of ions

Highlight: The greater the current detected, the higher the abundance of that particular ion.

The page then transitions to discussing electron orbitals, introducing the concept of electron clouds and the different types of orbitals: s-orbital, p-orbital, and d-orbital.

Definition: Electron orbitals are regions in an atom where electrons are most likely to be found.

The process of ionization is briefly mentioned, explaining that it occurs when an atom gains or loses an electron.

Vocabulary: Ionization is the process of an atom gaining or losing electrons to form an ion.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Atomic Structure and Fundamental Particles

This page introduces key concepts in atomic structure and fundamental particles. It covers the evolution of atomic models from the Plum Pudding Model to the Electron Shell Model, which was discovered through the Rutherford Scattering experiment.

The fundamental particles of an atom - protons, neutrons, and electrons - are described in terms of their relative charge and mass. The differences between proton and neutron mass are highlighted, with protons and neutrons having a relative mass of 1, while electrons have a much smaller mass of 1/1840.

Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

The concept of mass number and atomic number is introduced, using nitrogen as an example:

Example: For nitrogen-14:

  • Atomic number = 7
  • Mass number = 14
  • Proton number = 7
  • Neutron number = 14 - 7 = 7

The page concludes by explaining that the relative atomic mass is the mean mass of an atom of an element, taking into account the isotopes of that element.

Vocabulary: Relative atomic mass is defined as the mean mass of an atom divided by 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Chemical Bonding

This page covers different types of chemical bonding and their associated physical properties.

Four main types of chemical bonds are discussed:

  1. Covalent Bonds:

Definition: Covalent bonds form between two non-metals when electrons are shared to achieve a full outer shell.

  1. Coordinate (Dative) Bonds:

Definition: Coordinate bonds form when both electrons in the bond are supplied by a single atom.

  1. Metallic Bonds:

Definition: Metallic bonds consist of a lattice of positively charged ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.

  1. Ionic Bonds:

Definition: Ionic bonds form through electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

The page then discusses the physical properties associated with each type of bonding:

Highlight: Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points due to strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

Example: Metallic bonds allow for electrical conductivity because the delocalized electrons can carry current.

The page concludes by mentioning simple molecular structures, which are covalently bonded molecules held together by weak Van der Waals forces, resulting in low melting and boiling points.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Molar Calculations and the Ideal Gas Equation

This page covers molar calculations and introduces the Ideal Gas Equation, fundamental concepts in physical chemistry.

The page begins by defining relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative molecular mass (Mr):

Definition:

  • Ar = Mean mass of an atom of an element divided by 1/12th the mass of a C-12 atom
  • Mr = Mean mass of a molecule of a compound divided by 1/12th the mass of a C-12 atom

The concept of moles is introduced, along with Avogadro's constant:

Highlight: One mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10²³ particles (Avogadro's constant).

The page then presents the Ideal Gas Equation:

PV = nRT

Where:

  • P = Pressure (Pa)
  • V = Volume (m³)
  • n = number of moles
  • R = Ideal Gas Constant (8.31 JK⁻¹mol⁻¹)
  • T = Temperature (Kelvin)

Example: The Ideal Gas Equation can be used to calculate changes in pressure, volume, or temperature when the number of moles of gas changes.

The page concludes with formulas for calculating the number of moles and the number of particles in a substance.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

Empirical and Molecular Formulas, Atom Economy

This page discusses empirical and molecular formulas, as well as the concept of atom economy in chemical reactions.

The difference between empirical and molecular formulas is explained:

Definition:

  • Empirical formula: The simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
  • Molecular formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

The page provides steps to determine the empirical formula using percentage composition data and how to find the molecular formula using the empirical formula and the relative molecular mass.

The concept of atom economy is introduced:

Definition: Atom economy is the percentage of atoms from the reactants that end up in the desired product.

The formula for calculating atom economy is provided:

% Atom Economy = (Mr of desired product / Mr of all reactants) x 100

Highlight: High atom economy is desirable because it results in little or no waste product, making the process more economically viable.

The page concludes by emphasizing the importance of balancing chemical equations before using them in calculations.

Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o
Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o
Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o
Plum Pudding Model : Sphere of evenly in by un Electron Shell Model : Small dense Surrounded protons an within it. Contains the overall by o

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Knowunity is the #1 education app in five European countries

Knowunity has been named a featured story on Apple and has regularly topped the app store charts in the education category in Germany, Italy, Poland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Join Knowunity today and help millions of students around the world.

Ranked #1 Education App

Download in

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Download in

App Store

Knowunity is the #1 education app in five European countries

4.9+

Average app rating

13 M

Pupils love Knowunity

#1

In education app charts in 12 countries

950 K+

Students have uploaded notes

Still not convinced? See what other students are saying...

iOS User

I love this app so much, I also use it daily. I recommend Knowunity to everyone!!! I went from a D to an A with it :D

Philip, iOS User

The app is very simple and well designed. So far I have always found everything I was looking for :D

Lena, iOS user

I love this app ❤️ I actually use it every time I study.