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31 Dec 2025
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Atomic Structures and Chemical Bonding
Riya Singh
@riyasingh
1 / 9
Understanding Atoms
Every single thing you can touch is made of atoms - they're literally the smallest bits of an element that can exist. Think of them like incredibly tiny LEGO blocks that build up everything from your phone to your breakfast.
An atom has a central nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) with electrons whizzing around it in fixed energy shells. Protons have a +1 charge and mass of 1, neutrons have no charge but mass of 1, and electrons have a -1 charge with virtually no mass.
Here's the clever bit: atoms normally have no overall charge because the positive protons perfectly balance the negative electrons. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions (charged particles). Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Key Formula: To find neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
The periodic table organises elements by groups (vertical columns showing outer shell electrons) and periods (horizontal rows showing number of energy shells).
Covalent Bonding
When non-metals get together, they're too stubborn to give away electrons, so they share them instead - this creates covalent bonding. It's like two people sharing earphones because neither wants to give theirs up completely.
Simple molecules (like H₂O) have strong covalent bonds holding atoms together within each molecule, but weak forces between separate molecules. This means they have low melting and boiling points, don't conduct electricity, and are often gases or liquids at room temperature.
Giant covalent structures are completely different beasts. Imagine millions of atoms all holding hands in one massive network - that's what diamond and graphite are like. They have sky-high melting points because you'd need to break countless strong bonds to melt them.
Remember: Strong bonds within molecules, weak forces between molecules = low melting points
Graphite is special because it conducts electricity (unlike diamond) thanks to delocalised electrons that can move freely between its layers.
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding happens when metals meet non-metals and they do a complete electron swap - no sharing here! The metal gives away electrons to become a positive cation, while the non-metal takes them to become a negative anion.
Take sodium and chlorine: sodium desperately wants to lose its single outer electron, whilst chlorine is gagging for one more electron to complete its outer shell. Perfect match! Sodium becomes Na⁺ and chlorine becomes Cl⁻.
These oppositely charged ions are held together by powerful electrostatic forces - like super-strong magnets. This creates ionic compounds with high melting and boiling points because those electrostatic attractions are seriously tough to break.
Memory Trick: Cats have paws, so cations are "paw-sitive" (positive)!
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when melted or dissolved because the ions become free to move around and carry charge.
Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is like a sea of electrons floating around positive metal ions arranged in a regular pattern. The delocalised electrons aren't stuck to any particular atom - they're free to roam throughout the entire metal structure.
This electron sea explains why metals are brilliant conductors of both electricity and heat - those mobile electrons can carry charge and energy right through the material. It's also why metals can be hammered into shapes without breaking.
Alloys are mixtures of different metals that are actually harder than pure metals. When you mix different sized atoms, they mess up the neat layers and make it much harder for them to slide past each other.
Think of it like this: Pure metal layers slide like a deck of cards, but alloy layers are like cards of different sizes trying to slide - much trickier!
The stronger the metallic bonding, the higher the melting and boiling points will be.
Properties and State Changes
The strength of forces between particles determines everything about a material's behaviour. Strong forces mean high melting and boiling points, whilst weak forces mean the opposite.
Melting and freezing happen at the melting point, whilst boiling and condensing occur at the boiling point. The energy needed for these changes depends entirely on how tightly the particles are stuck together.
Small molecules have weak intermolecular forces between separate molecules, so they're usually gases or liquids with low boiling points. Polymers are massive molecules with strong covalent bonds and stronger intermolecular forces, making them solids at room temperature.
Key Point: When small molecules boil, you're breaking weak forces between molecules, not the strong covalent bonds within them.
Giant covalent structures need enormous amounts of energy to melt because you're actually breaking the strong covalent bonds that hold the entire structure together.
Carbon Structures
Carbon is absolutely brilliant at forming different structures with wildly different properties. Diamond has each carbon bonded to four others, creating an incredibly hard material with a very high melting point that doesn't conduct electricity.
Graphite has each carbon bonded to only three others, forming layers that can slide past each other (making it soft and slippery). It conducts electricity because of delocalised electrons that can move freely.
Graphene is basically a single layer of graphite that's amazingly strong yet flexible. Fullerenes are hollow cage-like molecules, including the football-shaped buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) and cylindrical carbon nanotubes.
Cool Fact: Graphene is so thin it's essentially 2D, yet it's stronger than steel!
These carbon structures are revolutionising technology - from tennis rackets reinforced with nanotubes to potential electronic applications using graphene's unique properties.
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are incredibly tiny - between 1-100 nanometres across and containing just a few hundred atoms. They're much smaller than fine particles and coarse particles .
The amazing thing about nanoparticles is their massive surface area to volume ratio. As particles get smaller, relatively more atoms are on the surface, which completely changes their properties compared to the bulk material.
This huge surface area makes nanoparticles incredibly useful as catalysts, in drug delivery, and for strengthening materials. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are key examples being used in everything from lubricants to electronics.
Scale Check: When a cube shrinks by a factor of 10, its surface area to volume ratio increases by a factor of 10!
The unique properties of nanoparticles are opening up possibilities in technology and medicine that simply wouldn't work with larger particles of the same materials.
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
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very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
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I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
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THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
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This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Atomic Structures and Chemical Bonding
Riya Singh
@riyasingh
Chemistry gets much more interesting when you understand the tiny building blocks that make up everything around you. This topic covers atoms, how they bond together, and why different materials have completely different properties based on their structure.
Understanding Atoms
Every single thing you can touch is made of atoms - they're literally the smallest bits of an element that can exist. Think of them like incredibly tiny LEGO blocks that build up everything from your phone to your breakfast.
An atom has a central nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) with electrons whizzing around it in fixed energy shells. Protons have a +1 charge and mass of 1, neutrons have no charge but mass of 1, and electrons have a -1 charge with virtually no mass.
Here's the clever bit: atoms normally have no overall charge because the positive protons perfectly balance the negative electrons. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions (charged particles). Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Key Formula: To find neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
The periodic table organises elements by groups (vertical columns showing outer shell electrons) and periods (horizontal rows showing number of energy shells).
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Covalent Bonding
When non-metals get together, they're too stubborn to give away electrons, so they share them instead - this creates covalent bonding. It's like two people sharing earphones because neither wants to give theirs up completely.
Simple molecules (like H₂O) have strong covalent bonds holding atoms together within each molecule, but weak forces between separate molecules. This means they have low melting and boiling points, don't conduct electricity, and are often gases or liquids at room temperature.
Giant covalent structures are completely different beasts. Imagine millions of atoms all holding hands in one massive network - that's what diamond and graphite are like. They have sky-high melting points because you'd need to break countless strong bonds to melt them.
Remember: Strong bonds within molecules, weak forces between molecules = low melting points
Graphite is special because it conducts electricity (unlike diamond) thanks to delocalised electrons that can move freely between its layers.
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Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding happens when metals meet non-metals and they do a complete electron swap - no sharing here! The metal gives away electrons to become a positive cation, while the non-metal takes them to become a negative anion.
Take sodium and chlorine: sodium desperately wants to lose its single outer electron, whilst chlorine is gagging for one more electron to complete its outer shell. Perfect match! Sodium becomes Na⁺ and chlorine becomes Cl⁻.
These oppositely charged ions are held together by powerful electrostatic forces - like super-strong magnets. This creates ionic compounds with high melting and boiling points because those electrostatic attractions are seriously tough to break.
Memory Trick: Cats have paws, so cations are "paw-sitive" (positive)!
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when melted or dissolved because the ions become free to move around and carry charge.
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Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is like a sea of electrons floating around positive metal ions arranged in a regular pattern. The delocalised electrons aren't stuck to any particular atom - they're free to roam throughout the entire metal structure.
This electron sea explains why metals are brilliant conductors of both electricity and heat - those mobile electrons can carry charge and energy right through the material. It's also why metals can be hammered into shapes without breaking.
Alloys are mixtures of different metals that are actually harder than pure metals. When you mix different sized atoms, they mess up the neat layers and make it much harder for them to slide past each other.
Think of it like this: Pure metal layers slide like a deck of cards, but alloy layers are like cards of different sizes trying to slide - much trickier!
The stronger the metallic bonding, the higher the melting and boiling points will be.
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Properties and State Changes
The strength of forces between particles determines everything about a material's behaviour. Strong forces mean high melting and boiling points, whilst weak forces mean the opposite.
Melting and freezing happen at the melting point, whilst boiling and condensing occur at the boiling point. The energy needed for these changes depends entirely on how tightly the particles are stuck together.
Small molecules have weak intermolecular forces between separate molecules, so they're usually gases or liquids with low boiling points. Polymers are massive molecules with strong covalent bonds and stronger intermolecular forces, making them solids at room temperature.
Key Point: When small molecules boil, you're breaking weak forces between molecules, not the strong covalent bonds within them.
Giant covalent structures need enormous amounts of energy to melt because you're actually breaking the strong covalent bonds that hold the entire structure together.
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Carbon Structures
Carbon is absolutely brilliant at forming different structures with wildly different properties. Diamond has each carbon bonded to four others, creating an incredibly hard material with a very high melting point that doesn't conduct electricity.
Graphite has each carbon bonded to only three others, forming layers that can slide past each other (making it soft and slippery). It conducts electricity because of delocalised electrons that can move freely.
Graphene is basically a single layer of graphite that's amazingly strong yet flexible. Fullerenes are hollow cage-like molecules, including the football-shaped buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) and cylindrical carbon nanotubes.
Cool Fact: Graphene is so thin it's essentially 2D, yet it's stronger than steel!
These carbon structures are revolutionising technology - from tennis rackets reinforced with nanotubes to potential electronic applications using graphene's unique properties.
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Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are incredibly tiny - between 1-100 nanometres across and containing just a few hundred atoms. They're much smaller than fine particles and coarse particles .
The amazing thing about nanoparticles is their massive surface area to volume ratio. As particles get smaller, relatively more atoms are on the surface, which completely changes their properties compared to the bulk material.
This huge surface area makes nanoparticles incredibly useful as catalysts, in drug delivery, and for strengthening materials. Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are key examples being used in everything from lubricants to electronics.
Scale Check: When a cube shrinks by a factor of 10, its surface area to volume ratio increases by a factor of 10!
The unique properties of nanoparticles are opening up possibilities in technology and medicine that simply wouldn't work with larger particles of the same materials.
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We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user