Ever wondered how scientists figure out the exact strength of... Show more
English Literature
Biology
SociologySign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
263
•
1 Jan 2026
•
OCR A-Level Chemistry: Key Concepts and Basics
Caitlin
@caitlin_05
1 / 3
Titrations and Standard Solutions
Titrations are your go-to method for finding the concentration of acids or bases. You'll put the unknown solution in a conical flask with a few drops of indicator, then slowly add the known solution from a burette until the colour changes - that's your end point.
Always read the burette from the bottom of the meniscus and work slowly near the end point. Phenolphthalein goes from pink (alkali) to colourless (acid), while methyl orange switches from yellow (alkali) to red (acid). You'll need to repeat until you get concordant results (within 0.10 cm³ of each other).
Standard solutions have a known concentration and are made by dissolving a precisely weighed solid in water, then making up to a fixed volume in a volumetric flask. For example, to make 250 cm³ of 0.75 mol dm⁻³ NaOH: find moles , then calculate mass .
Top tip: Always rinse your equipment with deionised water to transfer every bit of solid - it affects your final concentration!
Titration Calculations
Working out concentrations from titration results follows a simple four-step process that you'll use repeatedly in exams. Start with the balanced equation, calculate moles of the known solution, use molar ratios to find moles of the unknown, then work out concentration.
Take this example: 18.3 cm³ of 0.25 mol dm⁻³ HCl neutralises 25 cm³ of KOH. From HCl + KOH → KCl + H₂O, you get a 1:1 molar ratio. Calculate HCl moles: 0.25 × 18.3 × 10⁻³ = 4.58 × 10⁻³ mol, so KOH has the same moles.
For the concentration: 4.58 × 10⁻³ ÷ (25 × 10⁻³) = 0.18 mol dm⁻³. With diprotic acids like H₂SO₄, watch out for 2:1 ratios - one mole of acid neutralises two moles of base.
Remember: Always convert cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000, and check your molar ratios from the balanced equation!
Atomic Structure and Isotopes
Your atom consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting in shells around it. Protons have +1 charge and mass 1, electrons have -1 charge but almost no mass (1/1836), while neutrons are neutral with mass 1.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 all have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but 6, 7, and 8 neutrons respectively. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions with different charges.
Relative atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12. From mass spectra, you can calculate this using: ÷ total abundance. For chlorine with 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37: (75×35 + 25×37) ÷ 100 = 35.5.
Quick check: Mass number = protons + neutrons, atomic number = protons only!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
Most popular content: Titrations
Most popular content in Chemistry
Most popular content
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
OCR A-Level Chemistry: Key Concepts and Basics
Caitlin
@caitlin_05
Ever wondered how scientists figure out the exact strength of acids and bases? Titrations are like chemical detective work - you use one solution with a known concentration to work out the mystery concentration of another. Plus, understanding atoms and... Show more
Titrations and Standard Solutions
Titrations are your go-to method for finding the concentration of acids or bases. You'll put the unknown solution in a conical flask with a few drops of indicator, then slowly add the known solution from a burette until the colour changes - that's your end point.
Always read the burette from the bottom of the meniscus and work slowly near the end point. Phenolphthalein goes from pink (alkali) to colourless (acid), while methyl orange switches from yellow (alkali) to red (acid). You'll need to repeat until you get concordant results (within 0.10 cm³ of each other).
Standard solutions have a known concentration and are made by dissolving a precisely weighed solid in water, then making up to a fixed volume in a volumetric flask. For example, to make 250 cm³ of 0.75 mol dm⁻³ NaOH: find moles , then calculate mass .
Top tip: Always rinse your equipment with deionised water to transfer every bit of solid - it affects your final concentration!
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Titration Calculations
Working out concentrations from titration results follows a simple four-step process that you'll use repeatedly in exams. Start with the balanced equation, calculate moles of the known solution, use molar ratios to find moles of the unknown, then work out concentration.
Take this example: 18.3 cm³ of 0.25 mol dm⁻³ HCl neutralises 25 cm³ of KOH. From HCl + KOH → KCl + H₂O, you get a 1:1 molar ratio. Calculate HCl moles: 0.25 × 18.3 × 10⁻³ = 4.58 × 10⁻³ mol, so KOH has the same moles.
For the concentration: 4.58 × 10⁻³ ÷ (25 × 10⁻³) = 0.18 mol dm⁻³. With diprotic acids like H₂SO₄, watch out for 2:1 ratios - one mole of acid neutralises two moles of base.
Remember: Always convert cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000, and check your molar ratios from the balanced equation!
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Atomic Structure and Isotopes
Your atom consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting in shells around it. Protons have +1 charge and mass 1, electrons have -1 charge but almost no mass (1/1836), while neutrons are neutral with mass 1.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 all have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but 6, 7, and 8 neutrons respectively. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions with different charges.
Relative atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12. From mass spectra, you can calculate this using: ÷ total abundance. For chlorine with 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37: (75×35 + 25×37) ÷ 100 = 35.5.
Quick check: Mass number = protons + neutrons, atomic number = protons only!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
2
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Mock Exam
Quiz
Flashcards
Essay
Similar content
Redox Reactions Overview
Explore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including oxidation states, definitions of oxidation and reduction, and the roles of oxidizing and reducing agents. This summary covers key rules for determining oxidation states, the concept of disproportionation, and practical applications in chemical equations. Ideal for A-Level Chemistry students preparing for exams.
Chemistry12
Titration Techniques & Solutions
Explore essential laboratory techniques in Higher Chemistry, focusing on titration methods, standard solutions, and the calculation of unknown concentrations. This summary covers key concepts such as equivalence points, chemical principles, and practical applications in chemical analysis. Ideal for students preparing for exams or seeking to enhance their understanding of chemical processes.
ChemistryS5
GCSE Chemistry Overview
Explore key concepts in GCSE Chemistry, including atomic structure, chemical bonding, organic chemistry, and reaction rates. This comprehensive mindmap covers essential topics such as the Haber process, electrolysis, and energy changes, providing a clear understanding of the subject. Ideal for AQA Chemistry students preparing for exams.
Chemistry12
Calculating Enthalpy Changes
Explore the principles of measuring enthalpy changes in chemical reactions. This study note covers the use of calorimeters, the calculation of standard enthalpy changes, and the significance of specific heat capacity. Ideal for A Level Chemistry students, it includes key equations, experimental procedures, and common pitfalls to avoid. Enhance your understanding of thermodynamics and energy changes in reactions.
Chemistry12
Titration Techniques Explained
Explore the fundamentals of titration, including acid-base reactions, back titrations, and double titrations. This summary covers key calculations, indicators used, and the determination of concentrations in various titration scenarios. Ideal for WJEC AS Chemistry students.
Chemistry13
Acid-Base Titration Techniques
Explore the process of preparing a volumetric solution and conducting an acid-base titration to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide. This practical guide covers essential laboratory techniques, chemical calculations, and safety precautions, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of titration methods. Ideal for chemistry students seeking to master titration skills and laboratory practices.
Chemistry12
Most popular content: Titrations
Most popular content in Chemistry
Most popular content
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user