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Chemistry
11 Dec 2025
261
3 pages
Caitlin @caitlin_05
Ever wondered how scientists figure out the exact strength of acids and bases? Titrations are like chemical detective... Show more
Titrations are your go-to method for finding the concentration of acids or bases. You'll put the unknown solution in a conical flask with a few drops of indicator, then slowly add the known solution from a burette until the colour changes - that's your end point.
Always read the burette from the bottom of the meniscus and work slowly near the end point. Phenolphthalein goes from pink (alkali) to colourless (acid), while methyl orange switches from yellow (alkali) to red (acid). You'll need to repeat until you get concordant results (within 0.10 cm³ of each other).
Standard solutions have a known concentration and are made by dissolving a precisely weighed solid in water, then making up to a fixed volume in a volumetric flask. For example, to make 250 cm³ of 0.75 mol dm⁻³ NaOH find moles , then calculate mass .
Top tip Always rinse your equipment with deionised water to transfer every bit of solid - it affects your final concentration!
Working out concentrations from titration results follows a simple four-step process that you'll use repeatedly in exams. Start with the balanced equation, calculate moles of the known solution, use molar ratios to find moles of the unknown, then work out concentration.
Take this example 18.3 cm³ of 0.25 mol dm⁻³ HCl neutralises 25 cm³ of KOH. From HCl + KOH → KCl + H₂O, you get a 11 molar ratio. Calculate HCl moles 0.25 × 18.3 × 10⁻³ = 4.58 × 10⁻³ mol, so KOH has the same moles.
For the concentration 4.58 × 10⁻³ ÷ (25 × 10⁻³) = 0.18 mol dm⁻³. With diprotic acids like H₂SO₄, watch out for 21 ratios - one mole of acid neutralises two moles of base.
Remember Always convert cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000, and check your molar ratios from the balanced equation!
Your atom consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting in shells around it. Protons have +1 charge and mass 1, electrons have -1 charge but almost no mass (1/1836), while neutrons are neutral with mass 1.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 all have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but 6, 7, and 8 neutrons respectively. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions with different charges.
Relative atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12. From mass spectra, you can calculate this using ÷ total abundance. For chlorine with 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37 (75×35 + 25×37) ÷ 100 = 35.5.
Quick check Mass number = protons + neutrons, atomic number = protons only!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the process of preparing a volumetric solution and conducting an acid-base titration to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide. This practical guide covers essential laboratory techniques, chemical calculations, and safety precautions, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of titration methods. Ideal for chemistry students seeking to master titration skills and laboratory practices.
ChemistryExplore essential laboratory techniques in Higher Chemistry, focusing on titration methods, standard solutions, and the calculation of unknown concentrations. This summary covers key concepts such as equivalence points, chemical principles, and practical applications in chemical analysis. Ideal for students preparing for exams or seeking to enhance their understanding of chemical processes.
Chemistrygrade 7+ gcse combined science notes
ChemistryExplore essential laboratory techniques in chemical analysis, including stoichiometric calculations, gravimetric analysis, and the use of various chemical apparatus such as conical flasks and digital balances. This summary provides insights into acid-base titrations and methods for improving percentage yield in reactions.
ChemistryExplore essential concepts in A Level Chemistry, including mole calculations, Avogadro's constant, atomic structure, and empirical formulas. This resource provides clear explanations and key formulas to enhance your understanding of chemical principles. Ideal for exam preparation and mastering foundational topics in chemistry.
ChemistryExplore essential mole calculations and stoichiometry concepts for A-Level Chemistry. This study resource covers the amount of substance, back titration methods, and detailed examples to enhance your understanding of chemical calculations. Perfect for exam preparation and mastering key concepts.
ChemistryApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Caitlin
@caitlin_05
Ever wondered how scientists figure out the exact strength of acids and bases? Titrations are like chemical detective work - you use one solution with a known concentration to work out the mystery concentration of another. Plus, understanding atoms and... Show more
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Titrations are your go-to method for finding the concentration of acids or bases. You'll put the unknown solution in a conical flask with a few drops of indicator, then slowly add the known solution from a burette until the colour changes - that's your end point.
Always read the burette from the bottom of the meniscus and work slowly near the end point. Phenolphthalein goes from pink (alkali) to colourless (acid), while methyl orange switches from yellow (alkali) to red (acid). You'll need to repeat until you get concordant results (within 0.10 cm³ of each other).
Standard solutions have a known concentration and are made by dissolving a precisely weighed solid in water, then making up to a fixed volume in a volumetric flask. For example, to make 250 cm³ of 0.75 mol dm⁻³ NaOH: find moles , then calculate mass .
Top tip: Always rinse your equipment with deionised water to transfer every bit of solid - it affects your final concentration!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Working out concentrations from titration results follows a simple four-step process that you'll use repeatedly in exams. Start with the balanced equation, calculate moles of the known solution, use molar ratios to find moles of the unknown, then work out concentration.
Take this example: 18.3 cm³ of 0.25 mol dm⁻³ HCl neutralises 25 cm³ of KOH. From HCl + KOH → KCl + H₂O, you get a 1:1 molar ratio. Calculate HCl moles: 0.25 × 18.3 × 10⁻³ = 4.58 × 10⁻³ mol, so KOH has the same moles.
For the concentration: 4.58 × 10⁻³ ÷ (25 × 10⁻³) = 0.18 mol dm⁻³. With diprotic acids like H₂SO₄, watch out for 2:1 ratios - one mole of acid neutralises two moles of base.
Remember: Always convert cm³ to dm³ by dividing by 1000, and check your molar ratios from the balanced equation!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Your atom consists of a dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting in shells around it. Protons have +1 charge and mass 1, electrons have -1 charge but almost no mass (1/1836), while neutrons are neutral with mass 1.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 all have 6 protons and 6 electrons, but 6, 7, and 8 neutrons respectively. When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions with different charges.
Relative atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon-12. From mass spectra, you can calculate this using: ÷ total abundance. For chlorine with 75% Cl-35 and 25% Cl-37: (75×35 + 25×37) ÷ 100 = 35.5.
Quick check: Mass number = protons + neutrons, atomic number = protons only!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
2
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the process of preparing a volumetric solution and conducting an acid-base titration to determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide. This practical guide covers essential laboratory techniques, chemical calculations, and safety precautions, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of titration methods. Ideal for chemistry students seeking to master titration skills and laboratory practices.
ChemistryExplore essential laboratory techniques in Higher Chemistry, focusing on titration methods, standard solutions, and the calculation of unknown concentrations. This summary covers key concepts such as equivalence points, chemical principles, and practical applications in chemical analysis. Ideal for students preparing for exams or seeking to enhance their understanding of chemical processes.
Chemistrygrade 7+ gcse combined science notes
ChemistryExplore essential laboratory techniques in chemical analysis, including stoichiometric calculations, gravimetric analysis, and the use of various chemical apparatus such as conical flasks and digital balances. This summary provides insights into acid-base titrations and methods for improving percentage yield in reactions.
ChemistryExplore essential concepts in A Level Chemistry, including mole calculations, Avogadro's constant, atomic structure, and empirical formulas. This resource provides clear explanations and key formulas to enhance your understanding of chemical principles. Ideal for exam preparation and mastering foundational topics in chemistry.
ChemistryExplore essential mole calculations and stoichiometry concepts for A-Level Chemistry. This study resource covers the amount of substance, back titration methods, and detailed examples to enhance your understanding of chemical calculations. Perfect for exam preparation and mastering key concepts.
ChemistryApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology