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9 Dec 2025
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GCSE AQA Chemistry: Bonding, Structure, and Material Properties Notes
G
G
@gurneet
1 / 8
Chemical Bonds - The Big Three
Ever wondered why salt dissolves in water but diamond doesn't? It's all down to chemical bonds - the invisible forces that hold atoms together.
There are three types of strong bonds you need to know: ionic bonding , covalent bonding , and metallic bonding (metals with their "sea of electrons"). Each type creates completely different properties in materials.
Ionic bonding happens when metals give away electrons to non-metals, creating oppositely charged ions that attract each other like magnets. Think sodium chloride - sodium loses an electron to become Na⁺, chlorine gains it to become Cl⁻, and they stick together through electrostatic forces.
💡 Quick tip: Elements in Groups 1, 2, 6, and 7 love forming ions because they end up with the same electron structure as noble gases - the most stable arrangement possible!
Ionic Compounds and Covalent Bonding
Ionic compounds form massive 3D structures called giant ionic lattices - imagine millions of positive and negative ions arranged in a regular pattern. These structures are held together by strong electrostatic forces acting in all directions.
You can work out the empirical formula of any ionic compound by counting the ions in a diagram and finding the simplest whole number ratio. It's like a recipe that tells you the exact proportions needed.
Covalent bonding is completely different - atoms actually share pairs of electrons instead of transferring them. This sharing creates strong bonds between atoms and can form small molecules (like water), huge molecules (like polymers), or giant structures (like diamond).
💡 Remember: Different models show different things - dot and cross diagrams show electron transfer clearly, but 3D models show you the actual shape and arrangement in space.
Metallic Bonding and States of Matter
Metallic bonding is like having a sea of electrons floating around positive metal ions. These delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the entire structure, which is why metals conduct electricity so well.
The three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) depend on how much energy the particles have. More energy means particles move faster and get further apart. Melting and boiling happen when particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them together.
The strength of forces between particles determines melting and boiling points. Stronger forces mean you need more energy (higher temperature) to break them apart. This is why ionic compounds have such high melting points.
💡 State symbols: In equations, use (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for dissolved in water.
Properties of Ionic Compounds and Small Molecules
Ionic compounds are tough cookies with high melting and boiling points because you need massive amounts of energy to break all those strong electrostatic forces. They only conduct electricity when melted or dissolved because the ions need to be free to move.
Small molecules are the opposite - they have low melting and boiling points because the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) are much weaker than the bonds inside them. When they melt or boil, you're breaking these weak forces, not the strong covalent bonds.
Bigger molecules have stronger intermolecular forces, so they have higher melting and boiling points. Small molecules don't conduct electricity because they don't have free electrons or ions to carry the charge.
💡 Key difference: In ionic compounds, you're breaking the actual bonds. In molecular compounds, you're just separating the molecules from each other.
Polymers and Giant Covalent Structures
Polymers are like massive molecular chains with repeating units linked by strong covalent bonds. They're solids at room temperature because the intermolecular forces between these huge molecules are relatively strong.
Spot polymers in diagrams by looking for repeating units in square brackets with an "n" symbol, and long chains of atoms connected by single bonds.
Giant covalent structures are the ultimate in strength - every single atom is connected to others by strong covalent bonds throughout the entire structure. Examples include diamond, graphite, and silicon dioxide.
💡 Recognition tip: Giant covalent structures look like continuous networks with no separate molecules - just atoms bonded to atoms bonded to atoms, creating incredibly strong 3D lattices.
Metals, Alloys, and Carbon Structures
Pure metals have atoms arranged in neat layers that can slide over each other, making them soft and bendable. Alloys mix in different-sized atoms that disrupt these layers, preventing sliding and making the material much harder.
Metals conduct electricity and heat brilliantly because their delocalised electrons can move freely throughout the structure, carrying charge and energy.
Diamond is incredibly hard because each carbon forms four strong bonds in a rigid 3D network. Graphite forms layers where each carbon bonds to three others, with weak forces between layers allowing them to slide - perfect for pencils!
💡 Carbon versatility: Same element, completely different properties! Diamond's 4 bonds per carbon create hardness, while graphite's 3 bonds per carbon (with one delocalised electron) allow conductivity and slipperiness.
Carbon Allotropes and Nanoparticles
Graphite conducts electricity because each carbon atom has one delocalised electron that can move freely. Its layered structure with weak forces between layers makes it slippery and useful as a lubricant.
Graphene is basically a single layer of graphite - it's incredibly strong, lightweight, flexible, and conducts electricity better than most metals. Fullerenes are hollow carbon molecules with interesting cage-like structures, including cylindrical carbon nanotubes.
Nanoparticles are incredibly tiny with massive surface area to volume ratios. This makes them super reactive and useful for applications like targeted drug delivery, better catalysts, and more effective sunscreens.
💡 Size matters: As particles get smaller, their surface area to volume ratio increases dramatically - a 10x decrease in size gives a 10x increase in surface area to volume ratio!
Applications and Impact of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are revolutionising medicine, electronics, cosmetics, and catalysis because their huge surface area makes them incredibly reactive and efficient. They can deliver drugs directly to specific cells and make electronics smaller and more powerful.
However, there are serious concerns about health and environmental risks. We don't fully understand the long-term effects of nanoparticles on our bodies or ecosystems, and they could potentially accumulate in dangerous ways.
The advantages include enhanced properties, targeted applications, and increased efficiency. The disadvantages include unknown health risks, environmental concerns, high production costs, and uncertain regulations around their safe use.
💡 Balance is key: Nanoparticles offer amazing benefits, but we need proper safety research and regulations to ensure they're used responsibly without causing unintended harm.
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very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
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THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
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This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
GCSE AQA Chemistry: Bonding, Structure, and Material Properties Notes
G
G
@gurneet
Chemical bonding is all about how atoms stick together to form everything around you - from the salt on your chips to the graphite in your pencil. Understanding the three main types of bonds (ionic, covalent, and metallic) will help... Show more
Chemical Bonds - The Big Three
Ever wondered why salt dissolves in water but diamond doesn't? It's all down to chemical bonds - the invisible forces that hold atoms together.
There are three types of strong bonds you need to know: ionic bonding , covalent bonding , and metallic bonding (metals with their "sea of electrons"). Each type creates completely different properties in materials.
Ionic bonding happens when metals give away electrons to non-metals, creating oppositely charged ions that attract each other like magnets. Think sodium chloride - sodium loses an electron to become Na⁺, chlorine gains it to become Cl⁻, and they stick together through electrostatic forces.
💡 Quick tip: Elements in Groups 1, 2, 6, and 7 love forming ions because they end up with the same electron structure as noble gases - the most stable arrangement possible!
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Ionic Compounds and Covalent Bonding
Ionic compounds form massive 3D structures called giant ionic lattices - imagine millions of positive and negative ions arranged in a regular pattern. These structures are held together by strong electrostatic forces acting in all directions.
You can work out the empirical formula of any ionic compound by counting the ions in a diagram and finding the simplest whole number ratio. It's like a recipe that tells you the exact proportions needed.
Covalent bonding is completely different - atoms actually share pairs of electrons instead of transferring them. This sharing creates strong bonds between atoms and can form small molecules (like water), huge molecules (like polymers), or giant structures (like diamond).
💡 Remember: Different models show different things - dot and cross diagrams show electron transfer clearly, but 3D models show you the actual shape and arrangement in space.
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By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Metallic Bonding and States of Matter
Metallic bonding is like having a sea of electrons floating around positive metal ions. These delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the entire structure, which is why metals conduct electricity so well.
The three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) depend on how much energy the particles have. More energy means particles move faster and get further apart. Melting and boiling happen when particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them together.
The strength of forces between particles determines melting and boiling points. Stronger forces mean you need more energy (higher temperature) to break them apart. This is why ionic compounds have such high melting points.
💡 State symbols: In equations, use (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas, and (aq) for dissolved in water.
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Properties of Ionic Compounds and Small Molecules
Ionic compounds are tough cookies with high melting and boiling points because you need massive amounts of energy to break all those strong electrostatic forces. They only conduct electricity when melted or dissolved because the ions need to be free to move.
Small molecules are the opposite - they have low melting and boiling points because the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) are much weaker than the bonds inside them. When they melt or boil, you're breaking these weak forces, not the strong covalent bonds.
Bigger molecules have stronger intermolecular forces, so they have higher melting and boiling points. Small molecules don't conduct electricity because they don't have free electrons or ions to carry the charge.
💡 Key difference: In ionic compounds, you're breaking the actual bonds. In molecular compounds, you're just separating the molecules from each other.
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Polymers and Giant Covalent Structures
Polymers are like massive molecular chains with repeating units linked by strong covalent bonds. They're solids at room temperature because the intermolecular forces between these huge molecules are relatively strong.
Spot polymers in diagrams by looking for repeating units in square brackets with an "n" symbol, and long chains of atoms connected by single bonds.
Giant covalent structures are the ultimate in strength - every single atom is connected to others by strong covalent bonds throughout the entire structure. Examples include diamond, graphite, and silicon dioxide.
💡 Recognition tip: Giant covalent structures look like continuous networks with no separate molecules - just atoms bonded to atoms bonded to atoms, creating incredibly strong 3D lattices.
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Metals, Alloys, and Carbon Structures
Pure metals have atoms arranged in neat layers that can slide over each other, making them soft and bendable. Alloys mix in different-sized atoms that disrupt these layers, preventing sliding and making the material much harder.
Metals conduct electricity and heat brilliantly because their delocalised electrons can move freely throughout the structure, carrying charge and energy.
Diamond is incredibly hard because each carbon forms four strong bonds in a rigid 3D network. Graphite forms layers where each carbon bonds to three others, with weak forces between layers allowing them to slide - perfect for pencils!
💡 Carbon versatility: Same element, completely different properties! Diamond's 4 bonds per carbon create hardness, while graphite's 3 bonds per carbon (with one delocalised electron) allow conductivity and slipperiness.
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Carbon Allotropes and Nanoparticles
Graphite conducts electricity because each carbon atom has one delocalised electron that can move freely. Its layered structure with weak forces between layers makes it slippery and useful as a lubricant.
Graphene is basically a single layer of graphite - it's incredibly strong, lightweight, flexible, and conducts electricity better than most metals. Fullerenes are hollow carbon molecules with interesting cage-like structures, including cylindrical carbon nanotubes.
Nanoparticles are incredibly tiny with massive surface area to volume ratios. This makes them super reactive and useful for applications like targeted drug delivery, better catalysts, and more effective sunscreens.
💡 Size matters: As particles get smaller, their surface area to volume ratio increases dramatically - a 10x decrease in size gives a 10x increase in surface area to volume ratio!
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Applications and Impact of Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are revolutionising medicine, electronics, cosmetics, and catalysis because their huge surface area makes them incredibly reactive and efficient. They can deliver drugs directly to specific cells and make electronics smaller and more powerful.
However, there are serious concerns about health and environmental risks. We don't fully understand the long-term effects of nanoparticles on our bodies or ecosystems, and they could potentially accumulate in dangerous ways.
The advantages include enhanced properties, targeted applications, and increased efficiency. The disadvantages include unknown health risks, environmental concerns, high production costs, and uncertain regulations around their safe use.
💡 Balance is key: Nanoparticles offer amazing benefits, but we need proper safety research and regulations to ensure they're used responsibly without causing unintended harm.
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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4.9/5
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4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user