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20 Dec 2025
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Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, and it's... Show more
Ever wondered why carbon is the foundation of all life? Carbon sits in group 4 with four electrons in its outer shell, allowing it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This means it can create single, double, or triple bonds and link with other carbon atoms to form incredibly long chains.
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, containing only carbon and hydrogen. They're either saturated (single bonds only) or unsaturated (containing double or triple bonds). Think of saturated fats versus unsaturated fats - same concept!
Scientists organise carbon compounds into homologous series - families of compounds that behave similarly but differ by a -CH₂- group each time. The simplest series is alkanes, which only have single bonds. Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules that determine their chemical properties, like the -OH group in alcohols.
Quick Tip: Remember that carbon's ability to form four bonds makes it incredibly versatile - that's why there are millions of organic compounds!
Naming organic compounds follows a systematic approach using stems, prefixes, and suffixes. The stem tells you how many carbon atoms are in the longest chain , whilst prefixes and suffixes indicate side chains and functional groups.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons come in three main types: alkanes (single bonds), alkenes (at least one double bond), and alkynes (at least one triple bond). Each has its own suffix pattern - alkanes end in -ane, alkenes in -ene, and alkynes in -yne.
When naming compounds, always find the longest carbon chain first, then identify functional groups and side chains. Number everything to give the smallest possible numbers, with double bonds taking priority over side chains. For example, alcohols use the suffix -ol, whilst halogens like chlorine use prefixes like chloro-.
Exam Tip: Practice naming compounds by working systematically - longest chain first, then functional groups, then side chains with their positions!
You'll encounter several ways to represent organic compounds, each serving different purposes. Molecular formulae show the number of each type of atom (like C₄H₁₀) but don't reveal structure. Empirical formulae give the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms.
Displayed formulae show every single bond and atom position - useful for understanding structure but time-consuming to draw. Structural formulae are more efficient, showing groups bonded together like CH₃CH₂CH₃ for propane.
Skeletal formulae are the quickest to draw and interpret. Remove all carbon and hydrogen labels from chains, leaving just the carbon skeleton as lines. Each line intersection represents a carbon atom, line ends are CH₃ groups, and functional groups are still shown explicitly.
Structural isomers are different compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements. They can have the same functional group in different positions or completely different functional groups that happen to give the same molecular formula.
Study Hack: Master skeletal formulae early - they'll save you loads of time in exams and make complex molecules much easier to work with!
Understanding how bonds break and form is crucial for predicting organic reactions. Covalent bonds can break in two ways: homolytic fission (each atom keeps one electron, forming radicals) or heterolytic fission (one atom takes both electrons, forming ions).
Homolytic fission creates radicals - highly reactive species with unpaired electrons that often lead to chain reactions. Heterolytic fission produces positive and negative ions, with the more electronegative atom usually taking both electrons.
Reaction mechanisms show exactly how reactions occur using curly arrows to track electron pair movement. These arrows always point from where electrons start to where they end up - never the other way around!
There are three main reaction types you'll encounter: addition (two molecules join to form one), substitution (one atom or group replaces another), and elimination (a small molecule is removed, forming two products from one reactant).
Mechanism Mastery: Always draw curly arrows from electron-rich areas to electron-poor areas - this will help you predict reaction outcomes correctly!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds, and it's everywhere around you - from the petrol in cars to the proteins in your body. Understanding how carbon forms bonds and how we name and represent these compounds is essential... Show more
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Ever wondered why carbon is the foundation of all life? Carbon sits in group 4 with four electrons in its outer shell, allowing it to form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This means it can create single, double, or triple bonds and link with other carbon atoms to form incredibly long chains.
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, containing only carbon and hydrogen. They're either saturated (single bonds only) or unsaturated (containing double or triple bonds). Think of saturated fats versus unsaturated fats - same concept!
Scientists organise carbon compounds into homologous series - families of compounds that behave similarly but differ by a -CH₂- group each time. The simplest series is alkanes, which only have single bonds. Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules that determine their chemical properties, like the -OH group in alcohols.
Quick Tip: Remember that carbon's ability to form four bonds makes it incredibly versatile - that's why there are millions of organic compounds!
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Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Naming organic compounds follows a systematic approach using stems, prefixes, and suffixes. The stem tells you how many carbon atoms are in the longest chain , whilst prefixes and suffixes indicate side chains and functional groups.
Aliphatic hydrocarbons come in three main types: alkanes (single bonds), alkenes (at least one double bond), and alkynes (at least one triple bond). Each has its own suffix pattern - alkanes end in -ane, alkenes in -ene, and alkynes in -yne.
When naming compounds, always find the longest carbon chain first, then identify functional groups and side chains. Number everything to give the smallest possible numbers, with double bonds taking priority over side chains. For example, alcohols use the suffix -ol, whilst halogens like chlorine use prefixes like chloro-.
Exam Tip: Practice naming compounds by working systematically - longest chain first, then functional groups, then side chains with their positions!
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Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
You'll encounter several ways to represent organic compounds, each serving different purposes. Molecular formulae show the number of each type of atom (like C₄H₁₀) but don't reveal structure. Empirical formulae give the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms.
Displayed formulae show every single bond and atom position - useful for understanding structure but time-consuming to draw. Structural formulae are more efficient, showing groups bonded together like CH₃CH₂CH₃ for propane.
Skeletal formulae are the quickest to draw and interpret. Remove all carbon and hydrogen labels from chains, leaving just the carbon skeleton as lines. Each line intersection represents a carbon atom, line ends are CH₃ groups, and functional groups are still shown explicitly.
Structural isomers are different compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements. They can have the same functional group in different positions or completely different functional groups that happen to give the same molecular formula.
Study Hack: Master skeletal formulae early - they'll save you loads of time in exams and make complex molecules much easier to work with!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Understanding how bonds break and form is crucial for predicting organic reactions. Covalent bonds can break in two ways: homolytic fission (each atom keeps one electron, forming radicals) or heterolytic fission (one atom takes both electrons, forming ions).
Homolytic fission creates radicals - highly reactive species with unpaired electrons that often lead to chain reactions. Heterolytic fission produces positive and negative ions, with the more electronegative atom usually taking both electrons.
Reaction mechanisms show exactly how reactions occur using curly arrows to track electron pair movement. These arrows always point from where electrons start to where they end up - never the other way around!
There are three main reaction types you'll encounter: addition (two molecules join to form one), substitution (one atom or group replaces another), and elimination (a small molecule is removed, forming two products from one reactant).
Mechanism Mastery: Always draw curly arrows from electron-rich areas to electron-poor areas - this will help you predict reaction outcomes correctly!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Explore key concepts in chemical calculations including moles, percentage yield, atom economy, and the Avogadro constant. This summary provides essential formulas and examples for Year 10/11 students in triple science, helping you understand how to calculate mass, molar mass (Mr), and the limiting reactant in chemical reactions.
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of molarity and concentration in solutions with this detailed guide. Learn how to calculate the concentration of various solutions using molar mass and the number of moles. This resource covers key concepts such as aqueous solutions, mole calculations, and the relationship between moles, volume, and concentration. Ideal for A Level AQA Chemistry students.
ChemistryExplore essential concepts of mole calculations, including Avogadro's number, molar mass, and the ideal gas equation. This summary covers key formulas for determining moles, atom economy, and empirical vs. molecular formulas, providing a clear understanding for chemistry students. Ideal for exam preparation and quick reference.
ChemistryExplore the key concepts of amount of substance in A-Level Chemistry, including mole calculations, theoretical and actual yield, empirical and molecular formulas, and concentration. This summary provides essential formulas and steps for calculating moles, yields, and molarity, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the topic. Ideal for students preparing for exams.
ChemistryDive into key concepts of A-Level Chemistry with this comprehensive summary. Explore balancing equations, mole calculations, covalent and ionic bonding, intermolecular forces, and atom economy. Perfect for exam preparation, this resource covers essential topics like Avogadro's number, percent yield, and empirical formulas, ensuring a solid foundation for your studies.
ChemistryExplore the fundamental concepts of atomic structure, isotopes, ions, and chemical formulas in this comprehensive study note. Understand the significance of isotopes, how to calculate relative atomic mass, and the formation of ions. Ideal for A-level chemistry students preparing for exams. Key topics include isotopes, ionic charges, balancing equations, and the periodic table.
ChemistryApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
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