The structure and function of the mammalian lung, protein structure,... Show more
Sign up to see the contentIt's free!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
61
0
<3
26/09/2025
Biology
Topic 2 alevel biology
1,295
•
26 Sept 2025
•
Gas Exchange & DNA Replication for A Level Biology - Easy Notes & Diagrams
<3
@cirice
Structure of the Mammalian Lung and Gas Exchange
The mammalian lung is highly adapted for efficient gas exchange in mammals A Level Biology. Its structure includes:
Trachea: The entrance to the gas exchange system, protected by cartilage rings.
Bronchi: The trachea divides into two bronchi, composed of cartilage and smooth muscle.
Bronchioles: Bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles throughout the lungs.
Alveoli: Tiny air-filled sacs where gas exchange occurs.
Highlight: The alveoli are crucial for gas exchange, with oxygen diffusing into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide diffusing out.
The rate of gas exchange by diffusion is increased by:
- Decreasing diffusion distance
- Steepening the diffusion gradient
- Increasing the surface area for exchange
Definition: Fick's law describes the rate of diffusion across a membrane, which is proportional to the concentration difference and surface area, and inversely proportional to the distance.
Adaptations of the lungs for efficient gas exchange include: • Large surface area due to millions of alveoli • Short diffusion distance - alveoli and capillaries are only one cell thick • Good blood supply to alveoli from a dense capillary network • Concentration gradient maintained by blood flow and ventilation
Protein Structure and Function
Proteins are essential biomolecules with diverse structures and functions. Their structure is determined by:
Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Secondary structure: 2D arrangement of amino acid chains, such as alpha helices or beta pleated sheets.
Tertiary structure: 3D folding of the secondary structure into a complex shape.
Quaternary structure: 3D arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits.
Example: Hemoglobin, a globular protein, consists of four polypeptide chains and four heme groups, crucial for oxygen transport in gas exchange AQA A Level Biology.
Proteins can be fibrous (e.g., collagen) or globular (e.g., enzymes). Fibrous proteins provide structural support, while globular proteins often have metabolic functions.
DNA Replication and Protein Synthesis
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process essential for genetic continuity:
- DNA helicase unwinds the double helix, breaking hydrogen bonds between strands.
- Free nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with complementary bases on the template strand.
- DNA polymerase forms phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides.
Vocabulary: Semi-conservative replication means each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.
Protein synthesis occurs in two main stages:
Transcription: DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus.
Translation: mRNA is translated into a polypeptide chain at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Definition: The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins. It is non-overlapping, degenerate, and universal.
Mutations can occur during DNA replication or due to environmental factors: • Substitution: One base is replaced by another • Insertion: One or more bases are added • Deletion: One or more bases are removed
These concepts are fundamental to understanding DNA replication A level Biology OCR and AQA A Level Biology DNA replication exam questions.
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Gas Exchange & DNA Replication for A Level Biology - Easy Notes & Diagrams
<3
@cirice
The structure and function of the mammalian lung, protein structure, DNA replication, and protein synthesis are key topics in A level biology gas exchange system AQA. This comprehensive overview covers essential concepts for understanding respiratory biology and molecular genetics.... Show more
Structure of the Mammalian Lung and Gas Exchange
The mammalian lung is highly adapted for efficient gas exchange in mammals A Level Biology. Its structure includes:
Trachea: The entrance to the gas exchange system, protected by cartilage rings.
Bronchi: The trachea divides into two bronchi, composed of cartilage and smooth muscle.
Bronchioles: Bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles throughout the lungs.
Alveoli: Tiny air-filled sacs where gas exchange occurs.
Highlight: The alveoli are crucial for gas exchange, with oxygen diffusing into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide diffusing out.
The rate of gas exchange by diffusion is increased by:
- Decreasing diffusion distance
- Steepening the diffusion gradient
- Increasing the surface area for exchange
Definition: Fick's law describes the rate of diffusion across a membrane, which is proportional to the concentration difference and surface area, and inversely proportional to the distance.
Adaptations of the lungs for efficient gas exchange include: • Large surface area due to millions of alveoli • Short diffusion distance - alveoli and capillaries are only one cell thick • Good blood supply to alveoli from a dense capillary network • Concentration gradient maintained by blood flow and ventilation
Protein Structure and Function
Proteins are essential biomolecules with diverse structures and functions. Their structure is determined by:
Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Secondary structure: 2D arrangement of amino acid chains, such as alpha helices or beta pleated sheets.
Tertiary structure: 3D folding of the secondary structure into a complex shape.
Quaternary structure: 3D arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits.
Example: Hemoglobin, a globular protein, consists of four polypeptide chains and four heme groups, crucial for oxygen transport in gas exchange AQA A Level Biology.
Proteins can be fibrous (e.g., collagen) or globular (e.g., enzymes). Fibrous proteins provide structural support, while globular proteins often have metabolic functions.
DNA Replication and Protein Synthesis
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process essential for genetic continuity:
- DNA helicase unwinds the double helix, breaking hydrogen bonds between strands.
- Free nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with complementary bases on the template strand.
- DNA polymerase forms phosphodiester bonds between adjacent nucleotides.
Vocabulary: Semi-conservative replication means each new DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized strand.
Protein synthesis occurs in two main stages:
Transcription: DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus.
Translation: mRNA is translated into a polypeptide chain at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Definition: The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material is translated into proteins. It is non-overlapping, degenerate, and universal.
Mutations can occur during DNA replication or due to environmental factors: • Substitution: One base is replaced by another • Insertion: One or more bases are added • Deletion: One or more bases are removed
These concepts are fundamental to understanding DNA replication A level Biology OCR and AQA A Level Biology DNA replication exam questions.
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
Is Knowunity really free of charge?
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
61
Knowunity ist besser in der App
Hol dir die App, um Zugang zu den smarten Tools mit interaktiven Karteikarten, Übungsaufgaben, Probeklausuren und Zusammenfassungen zu bekommen
Similar content
Gas Exchange Mechanisms
Explore the essential mechanisms of gas exchange in plants and animals, including stomata function, leaf anatomy, fish respiration, and the role of specialized respiratory surfaces. This summary covers key concepts such as photosynthesis, respiration, and the importance of surface area-to-volume ratios, tailored for A Level biology students following the EDUQAS specification.
Biology12
Gas Exchange Systems Overview
Explore the gas exchange systems of insects, bony fish, and mammals in this comprehensive AS and A-Level Biology summary. Understand key concepts such as diffusion, alveoli, gill arches, and the tracheal system. This resource highlights the importance of specialized exchange surfaces and the surface area-to-volume ratio in efficient respiration. Perfect for exam preparation and quick revision.
Biology12
Gas Exchange Mechanisms
Explore the adaptations and mechanisms of gas exchange in various organisms, including plants and animals. This study note covers specialized exchange surfaces, transport systems, and the physiological processes involved in respiration and photosynthesis. Ideal for AQA A-Level Biology students, it includes key concepts such as stomata function, xylem and phloem transport, and the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport.
Biology12
Mitosis Process Overview
Explore the stages of mitosis, including early and late prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. This summary provides a clear understanding of chromosome replication and cell division, essential for A-Level biology. Key concepts include the role of centromeres, spindle fibers, and the differences in cytokinesis between animal and plant cells.
Biology12
Insect Gas Exchange Mechanisms
Explore the intricate tracheal system of insects, detailing how spiracles, trachea, and tracheoles facilitate efficient gas exchange. Understand the balance between oxygen intake and water loss, and learn about the adaptations that allow insects to thrive in various environments. This summary covers key concepts such as diffusion, concentration gradients, and the physiological responses during activity.
Biology12
Gas Exchange in Lungs
Explore the mechanisms of gas exchange in the lungs, focusing on the role of alveoli, blood capillaries, and the respiratory system. This summary covers key adaptations of alveoli for efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, highlighting the importance of surface area and moisture. Ideal for students studying respiratory physiology.
Biology7
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
App Store
4.8/5
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user