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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
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Biology
7 Dec 2025
213
3 pages
Maya A @maya.ah
The light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) are where plants actually make glucose from carbon dioxide - it's basically the... Show more
Ever wondered how plants actually make sugar from thin air? The Calvin Cycle is where the magic happens, taking CO₂ from the atmosphere and turning it into glucose through a clever four-step process.
First, CO₂ enters the leaf through stomata and diffuses into the stroma of chloroplasts. Here, the enzyme RuBisCO combines CO₂ with RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) in a process called carbon fixation. This creates two molecules of G-3-P .
Next comes the reduction stage, where 2 NADPH and 2 ATP from the light-dependent reactions convert G-3-P into triose phosphate (TP). One carbon from TP gets used to make glucose - meaning you need 6 turns of the Calvin cycle to create just one glucose molecule!
Finally, RuBP regeneration occurs when the remaining TP molecules reform RuBP using energy from ATP hydrolysis. This keeps the cycle spinning continuously, as long as there's enough CO₂, ATP, and NADPH available.
Key Point The Calvin Cycle is essentially a recycling system - RuBP gets used up and remade constantly, whilst gradually building up glucose from CO₂.
Understanding Calvin Cycle calculations is crucial for your A-levels, and the numbers are actually quite straightforward once you get the pattern. For every glucose molecule produced, you need exactly 6 CO₂ molecules, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH - remember this ratio!
The electron transport chains in light-dependent reactions work by accepting excited electrons and allowing them to lose energy gradually. This energy creates ATP from ADP + Pi, whilst NADPH forms when electrons and H⁺ ions combine with NADP.
When explaining why a plant's dry mass increase is less than hexose production, think about what happens to that glucose. Some hexose gets used in respiration (producing CO₂), whilst plant parts are lost through leaf fall, being eaten, or decomposition.
Exam Tip Always mention specific molecules like RuBP, G-3-P, and TP in your answers - examiners love to see you know the exact compounds involved!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, focusing on the light-dependent and light-independent reactions. This summary covers key concepts such as chloroplast structure, the role of chlorophyll, photolysis, ATP production, and the Calvin cycle. Ideal for A Level Biology students seeking a comprehensive understanding of photosynthesis.
BiologyExplore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, including light-dependent and light-independent reactions, chloroplast structure, and the role of pigments like chlorophyll. This summary covers key concepts such as thylakoids, the Calvin cycle, and the action spectrum, providing a comprehensive overview for A-level Biology students.
BiologyExplore the key processes of cellular respiration, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. This summary highlights ATP production, metabolic pathways, and the role of NADH and FADH2 in energy transfer. Ideal for A2 Level WJEC biology students.
BiologyExplore the impact of temperature on enzyme activity in this practical guide. Learn to conduct experiments using trypsin and milk powder to measure reaction rates, understand enzyme kinetics, and evaluate safety protocols. Ideal for A-Level Biology students, this resource covers essential techniques, risk assessments, and data analysis methods.
BiologyExplore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, including the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. This summary covers key concepts such as electron transport, ATP production, and the roles of chlorophyll and NADPH. Understand how glucose is synthesized and its various uses in plant metabolism. Ideal for higher biology students seeking a comprehensive overview of photosynthesis.
BiologyExplore the Krebs Cycle and Link Reaction in cellular respiration. This summary covers key processes including dehydrogenation, decarboxylation, and the formation of NADH and FADH2. Understand how Acetyl CoA interacts with Oxaloacetate to produce ATP and carbon dioxide. Ideal for A-Level Biology students studying WJEC Unit 3.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Maya A
@maya.ah
The light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) are where plants actually make glucose from carbon dioxide - it's basically the "building" phase of photosynthesis that happens in the stroma of chloroplasts. This process uses the ATP and NADPH created during the light-dependent... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Ever wondered how plants actually make sugar from thin air? The Calvin Cycle is where the magic happens, taking CO₂ from the atmosphere and turning it into glucose through a clever four-step process.
First, CO₂ enters the leaf through stomata and diffuses into the stroma of chloroplasts. Here, the enzyme RuBisCO combines CO₂ with RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) in a process called carbon fixation. This creates two molecules of G-3-P .
Next comes the reduction stage, where 2 NADPH and 2 ATP from the light-dependent reactions convert G-3-P into triose phosphate (TP). One carbon from TP gets used to make glucose - meaning you need 6 turns of the Calvin cycle to create just one glucose molecule!
Finally, RuBP regeneration occurs when the remaining TP molecules reform RuBP using energy from ATP hydrolysis. This keeps the cycle spinning continuously, as long as there's enough CO₂, ATP, and NADPH available.
Key Point: The Calvin Cycle is essentially a recycling system - RuBP gets used up and remade constantly, whilst gradually building up glucose from CO₂.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Understanding Calvin Cycle calculations is crucial for your A-levels, and the numbers are actually quite straightforward once you get the pattern. For every glucose molecule produced, you need exactly 6 CO₂ molecules, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH - remember this ratio!
The electron transport chains in light-dependent reactions work by accepting excited electrons and allowing them to lose energy gradually. This energy creates ATP from ADP + Pi, whilst NADPH forms when electrons and H⁺ ions combine with NADP.
When explaining why a plant's dry mass increase is less than hexose production, think about what happens to that glucose. Some hexose gets used in respiration (producing CO₂), whilst plant parts are lost through leaf fall, being eaten, or decomposition.
Exam Tip: Always mention specific molecules like RuBP, G-3-P, and TP in your answers - examiners love to see you know the exact compounds involved!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
4
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, focusing on the light-dependent and light-independent reactions. This summary covers key concepts such as chloroplast structure, the role of chlorophyll, photolysis, ATP production, and the Calvin cycle. Ideal for A Level Biology students seeking a comprehensive understanding of photosynthesis.
BiologyExplore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, including light-dependent and light-independent reactions, chloroplast structure, and the role of pigments like chlorophyll. This summary covers key concepts such as thylakoids, the Calvin cycle, and the action spectrum, providing a comprehensive overview for A-level Biology students.
BiologyExplore the key processes of cellular respiration, including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. This summary highlights ATP production, metabolic pathways, and the role of NADH and FADH2 in energy transfer. Ideal for A2 Level WJEC biology students.
BiologyExplore the impact of temperature on enzyme activity in this practical guide. Learn to conduct experiments using trypsin and milk powder to measure reaction rates, understand enzyme kinetics, and evaluate safety protocols. Ideal for A-Level Biology students, this resource covers essential techniques, risk assessments, and data analysis methods.
BiologyExplore the intricate processes of photosynthesis, including the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. This summary covers key concepts such as electron transport, ATP production, and the roles of chlorophyll and NADPH. Understand how glucose is synthesized and its various uses in plant metabolism. Ideal for higher biology students seeking a comprehensive overview of photosynthesis.
BiologyExplore the Krebs Cycle and Link Reaction in cellular respiration. This summary covers key processes including dehydrogenation, decarboxylation, and the formation of NADH and FADH2. Understand how Acetyl CoA interacts with Oxaloacetate to produce ATP and carbon dioxide. Ideal for A-Level Biology students studying WJEC Unit 3.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology