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28 Dec 2025
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SQA Higher Biology: Unit 1 - Exploring DNA and the Genome
Grace McCaul
@gracemccaul_qidv
1 / 10
DNA Structure and Organisation
Ever wondered how your genetic code is actually stored? DNA exists as a double-stranded helix made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains three parts: a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
The structure has a specific direction - new nucleotides can only be added to the 3' end in a 5' to 3' direction. The two strands are held together by weak hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs, making the molecule stable yet easy to separate when needed.
Prokaryotes (like bacteria) keep their DNA as large circular chromosomes in the cytoplasm, plus smaller DNA rings called plasmids. Eukaryotes (like humans) have their DNA tightly coiled with histone proteins into linear chromosomes stored safely in the nucleus.
Quick Tip: Remember that prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus, whilst eukaryotes have their DNA packaged in a proper nucleus!
DNA Replication
Before any cell divides, it must copy its entire DNA perfectly - this is DNA replication. Think of it as making an exact photocopy of your genetic instruction manual! The process relies heavily on two key enzymes: DNA polymerase and DNA ligase.
DNA polymerase does the heavy lifting by adding new nucleotides to build the new strand, but it needs a primer (a short starter sequence) to begin work. It can only add nucleotides to the 3' end using complementary base pairing.
Here's where it gets interesting - the two DNA strands are copied differently. The leading strand is made continuously in one smooth process, whilst the lagging strand is made in short fragments that must be joined together by DNA ligase.
Remember: DNA polymerase is like a builder who can only work in one direction and needs a foundation (primer) to start!
Stages of DNA Replication
The replication process follows a precise sequence that ensures accuracy. First, the DNA unwinds and hydrogen bonds between bases break, creating two template strands. Two replication forks form and move in opposite directions, exposing the bases for copying.
On the leading strand, a primer binds and DNA polymerase continuously adds nucleotides to the 3' end. The enzyme catalyses chemical bond formation between nucleotides as the strand grows smoothly.
The lagging strand works differently - primers bind as DNA is exposed, and DNA polymerase extends from each primer until it meets the previous fragment. Old primers are replaced with DNA, and DNA ligase joins all fragments together. This process repeats as the DNA continues to unzip.
Key Point: Think of the leading strand as a smooth highway and the lagging strand as a series of connecting bridges being built simultaneously!
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Need millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence quickly? PCR is your answer! This technique can amplify any desired DNA sequence from viruses, bacteria, plants, or animals millions of times within hours. It's highly specific, easily automated, and works with tiny sample amounts.
PCR requires several key components to work. You need a buffer to maintain pH and supply essential ions, nucleotides as building blocks, and primers to provide starting points. The star player is TAQ polymerase, a heat-resistant enzyme extracted from thermophilic bacteria.
Don't forget your template DNA - this contains the target sequence you want to copy. The beauty of PCR is that it works in vitro (outside living organisms), unlike in vivo processes that occur within organisms.
Cool Fact: TAQ polymerase comes from bacteria that live in hot springs, which is why it can survive the high temperatures used in PCR!
PCR Process
PCR works through a three-step temperature cycle that repeats multiple times. Heating (92°-98℃) splits the double-stranded template into single strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. This high temperature would destroy normal enzymes, but TAQ polymerase thrives!
Annealing (50°-65℃) allows primers to bind to complementary sites on the single-stranded template DNA. The temperature drops just enough for these specific bonds to form whilst preventing unwanted binding.
Extension (70°-80℃) sees DNA polymerase bind to the annealed primers and extend them in the 5' to 3' direction. After this step, the DNA has doubled! Each complete cycle doubles the amount of DNA, leading to exponential amplification.
Memory Tip: Think "Hot-Cool-Warm" for the three temperature stages - separate, bind, build!
RNA Structure
RNA (ribonucleic acid) serves as the crucial bridge between DNA and protein synthesis. Like DNA, RNA consists of nucleotides containing phosphate, sugar, and a base, but with key differences that make it perfect for its job.
Instead of deoxyribose, RNA uses ribose sugar. The four bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil - notice that uracil replaces thymine found in DNA. Base pairing follows the rule: A pairs with U, and C pairs with G.
Unlike DNA's double helix, RNA molecules are usually single-stranded. This allows them to fold into complex shapes and perform various functions within the cell, from carrying messages to catalyzing reactions.
Quick Note: Remember "U" for uracil in RNA - it's the key difference from DNA's thymine!
The Structure and Functions of RNA
RNA comes in three main forms, each with a specific job in protein synthesis. mRNA (messenger RNA) carries a copy of genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Each triplet of bases on mRNA is called a codon and codes for a specific amino acid.
tRNA (transfer RNA) acts like a molecular taxi service, transporting specific amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis. These molecules recognise the genetic code presented by mRNA through their anticodon sequences.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the cellular factories where proteins are actually made. Without rRNA, protein synthesis simply couldn't happen.
Think of it this way: mRNA is the recipe, tRNA delivers the ingredients, and rRNA provides the kitchen!
tRNA, rRNA, and Transcription
tRNA molecules have a distinctive structure with an anticodon at one end (complementary to mRNA codons) and an amino acid binding site at the other. This design allows precise matching between genetic code and amino acids during protein synthesis.
rRNA binds with structural proteins to form ribosomes, the essential protein-making machinery. These ribosomes use both mRNA templates and tRNA carriers to build proteins according to genetic instructions.
Transcription is the process of producing mRNA from a DNA template, and it occurs in the nucleus. The DNA strand used as a template is called the template strand, whilst the non-coding strand is the coding strand.
Key Insight: Think of transcription as making a working copy of your genetic blueprint that can leave the nucleus safely!
Stages of RNA Transcription
Transcription follows a systematic process to ensure accurate mRNA production. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA and breaks hydrogen bonds between bases, causing the strands to separate and expose their bases for copying.
Free RNA nucleotides find and align with complementary DNA nucleotides through hydrogen bonding. Strong chemical bonds then form between the sugar of one RNA nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, building the growing mRNA chain.
The process continues along the entire length of the gene. Finally, weak hydrogen bonds between DNA and RNA break, allowing the completed mRNA to separate from the DNA template. The DNA strands reunite and wind back into their double-helix structure.
Remember: Transcription is like making a photocopy - the original DNA stays intact whilst creating a working copy!
RNA Splicing
In eukaryotic cells, the initial RNA transcript (called the primary transcript) needs processing before it can make proteins. RNA splicing is the crucial editing process that removes unwanted sections and joins the useful parts together.
Introns are non-coding regions that get removed during splicing - think of them as unnecessary paragraphs in a text. Exons are the coding regions that contain actual protein-making instructions and get joined together to form the mature mRNA transcript.
This splicing process is essential because it allows one gene to potentially make multiple different proteins by keeping different combinations of exons. It's like having one recipe that can make several different dishes depending on which ingredients you include!
Memory Trick: "EXons EXit the nucleus" - they're the parts that actually get expressed as proteins!
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
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The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
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In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
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I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
SQA Higher Biology: Unit 1 - Exploring DNA and the Genome
Grace McCaul
@gracemccaul_qidv
DNA and RNA are the fundamental molecules that store and express genetic information in all living things. Understanding how DNA replicates itself and how it's used to make proteins through RNA is essential for grasping how life works at the... Show more
DNA Structure and Organisation
Ever wondered how your genetic code is actually stored? DNA exists as a double-stranded helix made up of repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains three parts: a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
The structure has a specific direction - new nucleotides can only be added to the 3' end in a 5' to 3' direction. The two strands are held together by weak hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs, making the molecule stable yet easy to separate when needed.
Prokaryotes (like bacteria) keep their DNA as large circular chromosomes in the cytoplasm, plus smaller DNA rings called plasmids. Eukaryotes (like humans) have their DNA tightly coiled with histone proteins into linear chromosomes stored safely in the nucleus.
Quick Tip: Remember that prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus, whilst eukaryotes have their DNA packaged in a proper nucleus!
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DNA Replication
Before any cell divides, it must copy its entire DNA perfectly - this is DNA replication. Think of it as making an exact photocopy of your genetic instruction manual! The process relies heavily on two key enzymes: DNA polymerase and DNA ligase.
DNA polymerase does the heavy lifting by adding new nucleotides to build the new strand, but it needs a primer (a short starter sequence) to begin work. It can only add nucleotides to the 3' end using complementary base pairing.
Here's where it gets interesting - the two DNA strands are copied differently. The leading strand is made continuously in one smooth process, whilst the lagging strand is made in short fragments that must be joined together by DNA ligase.
Remember: DNA polymerase is like a builder who can only work in one direction and needs a foundation (primer) to start!
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Stages of DNA Replication
The replication process follows a precise sequence that ensures accuracy. First, the DNA unwinds and hydrogen bonds between bases break, creating two template strands. Two replication forks form and move in opposite directions, exposing the bases for copying.
On the leading strand, a primer binds and DNA polymerase continuously adds nucleotides to the 3' end. The enzyme catalyses chemical bond formation between nucleotides as the strand grows smoothly.
The lagging strand works differently - primers bind as DNA is exposed, and DNA polymerase extends from each primer until it meets the previous fragment. Old primers are replaced with DNA, and DNA ligase joins all fragments together. This process repeats as the DNA continues to unzip.
Key Point: Think of the leading strand as a smooth highway and the lagging strand as a series of connecting bridges being built simultaneously!
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PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Need millions of copies of a specific DNA sequence quickly? PCR is your answer! This technique can amplify any desired DNA sequence from viruses, bacteria, plants, or animals millions of times within hours. It's highly specific, easily automated, and works with tiny sample amounts.
PCR requires several key components to work. You need a buffer to maintain pH and supply essential ions, nucleotides as building blocks, and primers to provide starting points. The star player is TAQ polymerase, a heat-resistant enzyme extracted from thermophilic bacteria.
Don't forget your template DNA - this contains the target sequence you want to copy. The beauty of PCR is that it works in vitro (outside living organisms), unlike in vivo processes that occur within organisms.
Cool Fact: TAQ polymerase comes from bacteria that live in hot springs, which is why it can survive the high temperatures used in PCR!
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PCR Process
PCR works through a three-step temperature cycle that repeats multiple times. Heating (92°-98℃) splits the double-stranded template into single strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. This high temperature would destroy normal enzymes, but TAQ polymerase thrives!
Annealing (50°-65℃) allows primers to bind to complementary sites on the single-stranded template DNA. The temperature drops just enough for these specific bonds to form whilst preventing unwanted binding.
Extension (70°-80℃) sees DNA polymerase bind to the annealed primers and extend them in the 5' to 3' direction. After this step, the DNA has doubled! Each complete cycle doubles the amount of DNA, leading to exponential amplification.
Memory Tip: Think "Hot-Cool-Warm" for the three temperature stages - separate, bind, build!
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RNA Structure
RNA (ribonucleic acid) serves as the crucial bridge between DNA and protein synthesis. Like DNA, RNA consists of nucleotides containing phosphate, sugar, and a base, but with key differences that make it perfect for its job.
Instead of deoxyribose, RNA uses ribose sugar. The four bases are adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil - notice that uracil replaces thymine found in DNA. Base pairing follows the rule: A pairs with U, and C pairs with G.
Unlike DNA's double helix, RNA molecules are usually single-stranded. This allows them to fold into complex shapes and perform various functions within the cell, from carrying messages to catalyzing reactions.
Quick Note: Remember "U" for uracil in RNA - it's the key difference from DNA's thymine!
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The Structure and Functions of RNA
RNA comes in three main forms, each with a specific job in protein synthesis. mRNA (messenger RNA) carries a copy of genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Each triplet of bases on mRNA is called a codon and codes for a specific amino acid.
tRNA (transfer RNA) acts like a molecular taxi service, transporting specific amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis. These molecules recognise the genetic code presented by mRNA through their anticodon sequences.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA) combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the cellular factories where proteins are actually made. Without rRNA, protein synthesis simply couldn't happen.
Think of it this way: mRNA is the recipe, tRNA delivers the ingredients, and rRNA provides the kitchen!
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tRNA, rRNA, and Transcription
tRNA molecules have a distinctive structure with an anticodon at one end (complementary to mRNA codons) and an amino acid binding site at the other. This design allows precise matching between genetic code and amino acids during protein synthesis.
rRNA binds with structural proteins to form ribosomes, the essential protein-making machinery. These ribosomes use both mRNA templates and tRNA carriers to build proteins according to genetic instructions.
Transcription is the process of producing mRNA from a DNA template, and it occurs in the nucleus. The DNA strand used as a template is called the template strand, whilst the non-coding strand is the coding strand.
Key Insight: Think of transcription as making a working copy of your genetic blueprint that can leave the nucleus safely!
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Stages of RNA Transcription
Transcription follows a systematic process to ensure accurate mRNA production. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA and breaks hydrogen bonds between bases, causing the strands to separate and expose their bases for copying.
Free RNA nucleotides find and align with complementary DNA nucleotides through hydrogen bonding. Strong chemical bonds then form between the sugar of one RNA nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, building the growing mRNA chain.
The process continues along the entire length of the gene. Finally, weak hydrogen bonds between DNA and RNA break, allowing the completed mRNA to separate from the DNA template. The DNA strands reunite and wind back into their double-helix structure.
Remember: Transcription is like making a photocopy - the original DNA stays intact whilst creating a working copy!
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RNA Splicing
In eukaryotic cells, the initial RNA transcript (called the primary transcript) needs processing before it can make proteins. RNA splicing is the crucial editing process that removes unwanted sections and joins the useful parts together.
Introns are non-coding regions that get removed during splicing - think of them as unnecessary paragraphs in a text. Exons are the coding regions that contain actual protein-making instructions and get joined together to form the mature mRNA transcript.
This splicing process is essential because it allows one gene to potentially make multiple different proteins by keeping different combinations of exons. It's like having one recipe that can make several different dishes depending on which ingredients you include!
Memory Trick: "EXons EXit the nucleus" - they're the parts that actually get expressed as proteins!
We thought you’d never ask...
What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user