Maths
Chemistry
Biology
English Language
History
Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
Cells
Show all topics
Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
Show all topics
Biology
9 Dec 2025
272
3 pages
Nadiya Islam @nadiyaaa
Protein synthesis is the fascinating process your body uses to create proteins, which are essential for nearly everything... Show more
Ever wondered how your body turns the instructions in your DNA into actual functioning parts? That's what protein synthesis is all about! This two-step process transforms genetic information into proteins that do the actual work in your cells.
The first step is transcription, where a specific gene from your DNA is copied into a molecule called mRNA. The second step, translation, is where that mRNA is used as instructions to build a protein. These steps might seem complicated, but they solve a simple problem your DNA is too large and valuable to leave the nucleus.
Since DNA can't leave the nucleus but proteins are made at ribosomes outside the nucleus, your cells create a smaller messenger. This messenger is mRNA (messenger RNA), which is essentially a portable copy of just one gene. Unlike DNA, mRNA is single-stranded, much shorter, and uses the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Quick Tip Think of mRNA as like taking a photo of just one page from an encyclopedia (your DNA) so you can reference it elsewhere without carrying the whole book!
Transcription is like making a photocopy of just one page from your DNA instruction manual. It all starts with an enzyme called RNA polymerase, which attaches to the DNA strand at the beginning of a gene.
As this enzyme moves along, it temporarily unzips the DNA double helix, exposing the bases on both strands. The RNA polymerase reads one strand (called the template strand) and builds a complementary mRNA strand base by base. When it sees a C on the DNA, it adds a G to the mRNA; when it sees a G, it adds a C; when it sees a T, it adds an A; and when it sees an A, it adds a U (remember, RNA uses U instead of T).
The clever bit is that only a small section of DNA is unzipped at any time – just enough for the RNA polymerase to read. As the enzyme moves forward, the DNA behind it zips back up again, protecting your genetic information.
Remember this In transcription, A in DNA pairs with U in mRNA (not T), while all other base pairings follow the same rules as DNA (C pairs with G).
Translation is where your cells turn the mRNA code into an actual protein. This happens at the ribosome, a cellular structure that reads the mRNA like a barcode scanner. The code is read in groups of three bases called codons, with each codon specifying a particular amino acid.
Your body uses 20 different amino acids to build proteins, and the sequence of codons in the mRNA determines which amino acids will be used and in what order. Special molecules called tRNA (transfer RNA) are the delivery service that brings the correct amino acids to the ribosome.
Each tRNA has an anticodon (three bases that match up with a codon on the mRNA) and carries the specific amino acid that corresponds to that codon. As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, it brings in the appropriate tRNAs one by one, linking their amino acids together to form a chain. When complete, this amino acid chain folds into a specific 3D shape, creating a functional protein.
Brilliant bit The genetic code is like a language with only 4 letters (A, U, G, C), but by reading them in groups of three, your cells can create 64 different "words" – enough to specify all 20 amino acids with some redundancy!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
6
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the intricate process of protein synthesis, including transcription and translation. This summary covers key concepts such as ribosomes, codons, and RNA polymerase, detailing how amino acids are assembled into proteins. Ideal for students seeking a clear understanding of molecular biology.
Biologyrevision notes on all of B6~ inheritance, variation & evolution
BiologyExplore the intricacies of human and plant reproduction in this comprehensive summary. Key topics include the male and female reproductive systems, fertilization processes, the menstrual cycle, DNA inheritance, and the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction. Ideal for GCSE Biology students seeking to understand reproductive mechanisms and genetic principles.
BiologyComprehensive checklist covering all key topics in Edexcel GCSE (9-1) Combined Science, including biology, chemistry, and physics. This resource is designed to aid students in their revision by providing a structured outline of essential concepts such as hormonal control, energy transfers, and the periodic table. Ideal for exam preparation and understanding core scientific principles.
BiologyAQA
BiologyExplore comprehensive knowledge organisers for AQA GCSE Biology, covering essential topics such as cell structure, genetics, ecosystems, and human biology. These concise summaries are designed to enhance your understanding and retention of key concepts, making them perfect for revision and exam preparation.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Nadiya Islam
@nadiyaaa
Protein synthesis is the fascinating process your body uses to create proteins, which are essential for nearly everything your cells do. This process happens in two main steps: transcription (copying DNA into mRNA) and translation (using that mRNA to build... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Ever wondered how your body turns the instructions in your DNA into actual functioning parts? That's what protein synthesis is all about! This two-step process transforms genetic information into proteins that do the actual work in your cells.
The first step is transcription, where a specific gene from your DNA is copied into a molecule called mRNA. The second step, translation, is where that mRNA is used as instructions to build a protein. These steps might seem complicated, but they solve a simple problem: your DNA is too large and valuable to leave the nucleus.
Since DNA can't leave the nucleus but proteins are made at ribosomes outside the nucleus, your cells create a smaller messenger. This messenger is mRNA (messenger RNA), which is essentially a portable copy of just one gene. Unlike DNA, mRNA is single-stranded, much shorter, and uses the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Quick Tip: Think of mRNA as like taking a photo of just one page from an encyclopedia (your DNA) so you can reference it elsewhere without carrying the whole book!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Transcription is like making a photocopy of just one page from your DNA instruction manual. It all starts with an enzyme called RNA polymerase, which attaches to the DNA strand at the beginning of a gene.
As this enzyme moves along, it temporarily unzips the DNA double helix, exposing the bases on both strands. The RNA polymerase reads one strand (called the template strand) and builds a complementary mRNA strand base by base. When it sees a C on the DNA, it adds a G to the mRNA; when it sees a G, it adds a C; when it sees a T, it adds an A; and when it sees an A, it adds a U (remember, RNA uses U instead of T).
The clever bit is that only a small section of DNA is unzipped at any time – just enough for the RNA polymerase to read. As the enzyme moves forward, the DNA behind it zips back up again, protecting your genetic information.
Remember this: In transcription, A in DNA pairs with U in mRNA (not T), while all other base pairings follow the same rules as DNA (C pairs with G).
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Translation is where your cells turn the mRNA code into an actual protein. This happens at the ribosome, a cellular structure that reads the mRNA like a barcode scanner. The code is read in groups of three bases called codons, with each codon specifying a particular amino acid.
Your body uses 20 different amino acids to build proteins, and the sequence of codons in the mRNA determines which amino acids will be used and in what order. Special molecules called tRNA (transfer RNA) are the delivery service that brings the correct amino acids to the ribosome.
Each tRNA has an anticodon (three bases that match up with a codon on the mRNA) and carries the specific amino acid that corresponds to that codon. As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, it brings in the appropriate tRNAs one by one, linking their amino acids together to form a chain. When complete, this amino acid chain folds into a specific 3D shape, creating a functional protein.
Brilliant bit: The genetic code is like a language with only 4 letters (A, U, G, C), but by reading them in groups of three, your cells can create 64 different "words" – enough to specify all 20 amino acids with some redundancy!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
6
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Explore the intricate process of protein synthesis, including transcription and translation. This summary covers key concepts such as ribosomes, codons, and RNA polymerase, detailing how amino acids are assembled into proteins. Ideal for students seeking a clear understanding of molecular biology.
Biologyrevision notes on all of B6~ inheritance, variation & evolution
BiologyExplore the intricacies of human and plant reproduction in this comprehensive summary. Key topics include the male and female reproductive systems, fertilization processes, the menstrual cycle, DNA inheritance, and the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction. Ideal for GCSE Biology students seeking to understand reproductive mechanisms and genetic principles.
BiologyComprehensive checklist covering all key topics in Edexcel GCSE (9-1) Combined Science, including biology, chemistry, and physics. This resource is designed to aid students in their revision by providing a structured outline of essential concepts such as hormonal control, energy transfers, and the periodic table. Ideal for exam preparation and understanding core scientific principles.
BiologyAQA
BiologyExplore comprehensive knowledge organisers for AQA GCSE Biology, covering essential topics such as cell structure, genetics, ecosystems, and human biology. These concise summaries are designed to enhance your understanding and retention of key concepts, making them perfect for revision and exam preparation.
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology