Subjects
Maths
Chemistry
Biology
English Language
History
Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
Cells
Show all topics
Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
Show all topics
Biology
3 Dec 2025
95
4 pages
Peri <3 @peristudies
Photosynthesis is the remarkable process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates. This process... Show more
Ever wondered how plants feed themselves? Photosynthesis is the answer! This process captures light energy and converts (transduces) it into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates. The basic equation is
During daylight, plants perform both photosynthesis and respiration, using the CO₂ from respiration for photosynthesis. At night, only respiration occurs. When these processes balance each other, the plant reaches its compensation point – plants from different environments have evolved different compensation points to match their light conditions.
Several limiting factors can affect photosynthesis rates light intensity, water availability, carbon dioxide concentration, enzymes (particularly Rubisco), temperature, and the number of chlorophyll/pigments. These factors directly control how efficiently the process works.
Did you know? Plants contain multiple pigments that absorb different wavelengths of light. That's why leaves appear green – they reflect green light while absorbing red and blue wavelengths for photosynthesis!
The main site of photosynthesis is the palisade tissue, where chloroplasts move intracellularly to optimize light absorption. These chloroplasts contain both accessory pigments (chlorophyll b, xanthophyll, carotene) and primary pigment (chlorophyll a), which can be separated and identified using chromatography by their R values. Each pigment absorbs different light wavelengths, making the overall process more efficient.
Think of photosystems as solar panels embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts! These amazing structures have two crucial components the antenna complex (which harvests light energy from different wavelengths) and the reaction centre (where chlorophyll a emits energized electrons).
Despite their confusing names, Photosystem II (PSII) works first in the process, absorbing light at 680-690nm, while Photosystem I (PSI) follows it, absorbing at 700nm. When light strikes these photosystems, electrons become excited and are transferred through electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane.
Chloroplasts produce ATP through two pathways
Remember this When photosystems lose electrons, they become oxidised. PSII gets new electrons from water through photolysis (breaking water with light), releasing oxygen as a waste product!
As electrons travel through carriers, they release energy that powers proton pumps. These pumps create a proton gradient by moving hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space. The protons then flow through ATP synthase (stalked particles), generating ATP in the process. In non-cyclic phosphorylation, electrons reduce NADP to form NADPH₂. Both ATP and NADPH₂ are vital products used in the next stage of photosynthesis.
How do we know what happens during the Calvin Cycle? Scientist Melvin Calvin discovered this through clever experiments with algae. By exposing algal cells to radioactive carbon-14 and tracking its movement, he identified that glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) was the first stable product formed during the process.
The Calvin Cycle has three key purposes to capture carbon dioxide, produce triose phosphate, and provide starting materials for all organic compounds plants need. Think of it as the plant's manufacturing factory that uses the energy harvested during the light-dependent reactions!
The cycle works in five main steps
Exam tip Remember that the Calvin Cycle doesn't directly need light, but it depends on the ATP and NADPH₂ produced during the light-dependent reactions!
Triose phosphate is incredibly versatile - with the right minerals, plants can use it to make amino acids (with nitrogen and sulfur), nucleic acids (with nitrogen and phosphorus), or phospholipids (with phosphorus). Without these minerals, plants develop deficiencies with specific symptoms like stunted growth or chlorosis (yellowing of leaves).
Plants need specific minerals to grow properly, just like we need vitamins! Each mineral plays essential roles in plant processes and development.
Calcium (Ca²⁺) serves as an enzyme cofactor and helps form the middle lamella between plant cells. Without enough calcium, plants develop small leaves and experience death of buds at stem ends. Similarly, magnesium (Mg²⁺) is a vital component of chlorophyll and an enzyme cofactor. Magnesium deficiency leads to chlorosis - the yellowing of leaves that indicates failing photosynthesis.
To properly test for mineral deficiencies, scientists use both positive and negative controls. The negative control contains no minerals, while the positive control has sufficient minerals. This approach allows researchers to accurately identify which specific mineral deficiency causes which symptoms in plants.
Study hack Create a quick reference table of minerals, their forms (like K⁺, PO₄³⁻), their functions, and deficiency symptoms to make revision easier!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
0
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Peri <3
@peristudies
Photosynthesis is the remarkable process where plants convert light energy into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates. This process is essentially the opposite of respiration and is affected by several limiting factors. Understanding photosynthesis is crucial as it forms the foundation... Show more
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Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Ever wondered how plants feed themselves? Photosynthesis is the answer! This process captures light energy and converts (transduces) it into chemical energy stored in carbohydrates. The basic equation is:
During daylight, plants perform both photosynthesis and respiration, using the CO₂ from respiration for photosynthesis. At night, only respiration occurs. When these processes balance each other, the plant reaches its compensation point – plants from different environments have evolved different compensation points to match their light conditions.
Several limiting factors can affect photosynthesis rates: light intensity, water availability, carbon dioxide concentration, enzymes (particularly Rubisco), temperature, and the number of chlorophyll/pigments. These factors directly control how efficiently the process works.
Did you know? Plants contain multiple pigments that absorb different wavelengths of light. That's why leaves appear green – they reflect green light while absorbing red and blue wavelengths for photosynthesis!
The main site of photosynthesis is the palisade tissue, where chloroplasts move intracellularly to optimize light absorption. These chloroplasts contain both accessory pigments (chlorophyll b, xanthophyll, carotene) and primary pigment (chlorophyll a), which can be separated and identified using chromatography by their R values. Each pigment absorbs different light wavelengths, making the overall process more efficient.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Think of photosystems as solar panels embedded in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts! These amazing structures have two crucial components: the antenna complex (which harvests light energy from different wavelengths) and the reaction centre (where chlorophyll a emits energized electrons).
Despite their confusing names, Photosystem II (PSII) works first in the process, absorbing light at 680-690nm, while Photosystem I (PSI) follows it, absorbing at 700nm. When light strikes these photosystems, electrons become excited and are transferred through electron carriers in the thylakoid membrane.
Chloroplasts produce ATP through two pathways:
Remember this: When photosystems lose electrons, they become oxidised. PSII gets new electrons from water through photolysis (breaking water with light), releasing oxygen as a waste product!
As electrons travel through carriers, they release energy that powers proton pumps. These pumps create a proton gradient by moving hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space. The protons then flow through ATP synthase (stalked particles), generating ATP in the process. In non-cyclic phosphorylation, electrons reduce NADP to form NADPH₂. Both ATP and NADPH₂ are vital products used in the next stage of photosynthesis.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
How do we know what happens during the Calvin Cycle? Scientist Melvin Calvin discovered this through clever experiments with algae. By exposing algal cells to radioactive carbon-14 and tracking its movement, he identified that glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) was the first stable product formed during the process.
The Calvin Cycle has three key purposes: to capture carbon dioxide, produce triose phosphate, and provide starting materials for all organic compounds plants need. Think of it as the plant's manufacturing factory that uses the energy harvested during the light-dependent reactions!
The cycle works in five main steps:
Exam tip: Remember that the Calvin Cycle doesn't directly need light, but it depends on the ATP and NADPH₂ produced during the light-dependent reactions!
Triose phosphate is incredibly versatile - with the right minerals, plants can use it to make amino acids (with nitrogen and sulfur), nucleic acids (with nitrogen and phosphorus), or phospholipids (with phosphorus). Without these minerals, plants develop deficiencies with specific symptoms like stunted growth or chlorosis (yellowing of leaves).
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Plants need specific minerals to grow properly, just like we need vitamins! Each mineral plays essential roles in plant processes and development.
Calcium (Ca²⁺) serves as an enzyme cofactor and helps form the middle lamella between plant cells. Without enough calcium, plants develop small leaves and experience death of buds at stem ends. Similarly, magnesium (Mg²⁺) is a vital component of chlorophyll and an enzyme cofactor. Magnesium deficiency leads to chlorosis - the yellowing of leaves that indicates failing photosynthesis.
To properly test for mineral deficiencies, scientists use both positive and negative controls. The negative control contains no minerals, while the positive control has sufficient minerals. This approach allows researchers to accurately identify which specific mineral deficiency causes which symptoms in plants.
Study hack: Create a quick reference table of minerals, their forms (like K⁺, PO₄³⁻), their functions, and deficiency symptoms to make revision easier!
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
0
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
App Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Biologia
Sociology