Maths
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English Language
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Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
Homeostasis and response
Energy transfers (a2 only)
Cell biology
Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
Biological molecules
Organisation
Substance exchange
Bioenergetics
Genetic information & variation
Inheritance, variation and evolution
Genetics & ecosystems (a2 only)
Ecology
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
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81
•
11 Dec 2025
•
sophie
@sophie_tilley
Understanding how bacteria are classified is crucial for medical treatments... Show more
You can identify bacteria by looking at their three main shapes: cocci (spherical), bacilli , and spirillum . These microscopic organisms also differ in size, cell wall structure, and how they group together - some appear as single cells, whilst others form pairs or chains.
Scientists use several methods to tell bacteria apart. Physical differences include their size and staining characteristics, whilst genetic differences involve their metabolic features and surface molecules. This classification system helps doctors choose the right antibiotics and allows researchers to study specific bacterial types.
The Gram stain is a vital laboratory technique that sorts bacteria into two major groups. This method reveals differences in cell wall composition, which directly affects how bacteria respond to antibiotics - making it essential for medical diagnosis and treatment decisions.
Key Point: Bacterial classification isn't just academic - it directly impacts medical treatments and helps predict which antibiotics will work against specific infections.
The Gram staining procedure follows five clear steps that reveal crucial differences between bacterial types. You start with colourless bacteria, apply crystal violet (turning everything purple), add iodine to fix the stain, wash with alcohol, and finish with safranin counterstain.
Gram-positive bacteria retain the purple crystal violet because they have thick peptidoglycan cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria lose the purple stain during alcohol washing and appear red/pink from the safranin counterstain. This happens because they have thin peptidoglycan walls protected by a lipopolysaccharide layer.
The structural differences explain why some infections are harder to treat. Gram-positive bacteria are more susceptible to penicillin and lysozyme because these substances can easily reach their peptidoglycan layer. Gram-negative bacteria resist these treatments because their lipopolysaccharide layer acts like protective armour.
Medical Insight: Understanding Gram staining results helps doctors prescribe effective antibiotics - gram-negative infections often require different, stronger treatments.
Growing bacteria in laboratories requires specific nutrients and environmental conditions. You'll need a carbon source (like glucose), nitrogen compounds for protein synthesis, and growth factors including vitamins and mineral salts. Most bacteria are cultured on agar, a jelly-like substance that provides the perfect growing medium.
Temperature, pH, and oxygen requirements vary dramatically between bacterial species. School labs typically use 25°C to avoid growing dangerous pathogens, whilst body temperature (37°C) is reserved for studying human bacteria. Some bacteria need oxygen (obligate aerobes), others die in its presence (obligate anaerobes), and many can survive either way (facultative anaerobes).
Aseptic technique prevents contamination during bacterial culturing. This involves sterilising equipment with flame, barely lifting Petri dish lids, securing plates with tape, and working near a Bunsen burner flame. These precautions protect both your cultures and the environment from unwanted microorganisms.
Lab Safety: Proper aseptic technique isn't just about getting clean results - it prevents potentially dangerous bacteria from spreading in the laboratory environment.
Viable count experiments determine the number of living bacteria in a sample through serial dilutions and colony counting. You'll create dilution series (typically 10x or 100x), plate small volumes onto agar, incubate for 24-48 hours, then count the resulting colonies.
The calculation involves multiplying the colony count by the dilution factor and adjusting for the plated volume. For example, if you count 69 colonies from a 0.5cm³ sample with 1×10³ dilution, you'd calculate: 69 × 1000 ÷ 0.5 = 138,000 bacteria per cm³ in the original sample.
Accuracy improves with repetition - performing the experiment three times and calculating a mean gives more reliable results. This statistical approach accounts for natural variation and experimental errors that occur during bacterial counting.
Practical Tip: Always repeat viable counts at least three times - bacterial growth can be unpredictable, and averaging results gives you confidence in your data.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
sophie
@sophie_tilley
Understanding how bacteria are classified is crucial for medical treatments and laboratory work. By learning about bacterial shapes, Gram staining, and culturing techniques, you'll grasp why some infections are harder to treat than others and how scientists study these microscopic... Show more
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You can identify bacteria by looking at their three main shapes: cocci (spherical), bacilli , and spirillum . These microscopic organisms also differ in size, cell wall structure, and how they group together - some appear as single cells, whilst others form pairs or chains.
Scientists use several methods to tell bacteria apart. Physical differences include their size and staining characteristics, whilst genetic differences involve their metabolic features and surface molecules. This classification system helps doctors choose the right antibiotics and allows researchers to study specific bacterial types.
The Gram stain is a vital laboratory technique that sorts bacteria into two major groups. This method reveals differences in cell wall composition, which directly affects how bacteria respond to antibiotics - making it essential for medical diagnosis and treatment decisions.
Key Point: Bacterial classification isn't just academic - it directly impacts medical treatments and helps predict which antibiotics will work against specific infections.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The Gram staining procedure follows five clear steps that reveal crucial differences between bacterial types. You start with colourless bacteria, apply crystal violet (turning everything purple), add iodine to fix the stain, wash with alcohol, and finish with safranin counterstain.
Gram-positive bacteria retain the purple crystal violet because they have thick peptidoglycan cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria lose the purple stain during alcohol washing and appear red/pink from the safranin counterstain. This happens because they have thin peptidoglycan walls protected by a lipopolysaccharide layer.
The structural differences explain why some infections are harder to treat. Gram-positive bacteria are more susceptible to penicillin and lysozyme because these substances can easily reach their peptidoglycan layer. Gram-negative bacteria resist these treatments because their lipopolysaccharide layer acts like protective armour.
Medical Insight: Understanding Gram staining results helps doctors prescribe effective antibiotics - gram-negative infections often require different, stronger treatments.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Growing bacteria in laboratories requires specific nutrients and environmental conditions. You'll need a carbon source (like glucose), nitrogen compounds for protein synthesis, and growth factors including vitamins and mineral salts. Most bacteria are cultured on agar, a jelly-like substance that provides the perfect growing medium.
Temperature, pH, and oxygen requirements vary dramatically between bacterial species. School labs typically use 25°C to avoid growing dangerous pathogens, whilst body temperature (37°C) is reserved for studying human bacteria. Some bacteria need oxygen (obligate aerobes), others die in its presence (obligate anaerobes), and many can survive either way (facultative anaerobes).
Aseptic technique prevents contamination during bacterial culturing. This involves sterilising equipment with flame, barely lifting Petri dish lids, securing plates with tape, and working near a Bunsen burner flame. These precautions protect both your cultures and the environment from unwanted microorganisms.
Lab Safety: Proper aseptic technique isn't just about getting clean results - it prevents potentially dangerous bacteria from spreading in the laboratory environment.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Viable count experiments determine the number of living bacteria in a sample through serial dilutions and colony counting. You'll create dilution series (typically 10x or 100x), plate small volumes onto agar, incubate for 24-48 hours, then count the resulting colonies.
The calculation involves multiplying the colony count by the dilution factor and adjusting for the plated volume. For example, if you count 69 colonies from a 0.5cm³ sample with 1×10³ dilution, you'd calculate: 69 × 1000 ÷ 0.5 = 138,000 bacteria per cm³ in the original sample.
Accuracy improves with repetition - performing the experiment three times and calculating a mean gives more reliable results. This statistical approach accounts for natural variation and experimental errors that occur during bacterial counting.
Practical Tip: Always repeat viable counts at least three times - bacterial growth can be unpredictable, and averaging results gives you confidence in your data.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
Quotes from every main character
English LiteratureApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology