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24 Apr 2023
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Higher Human Biology: Cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, and the Citric Acid Cycle
I
Isla .
@isla._hrgc
Stage 2 - Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. This stage is crucial for generating electron carriers and carbon dioxide as a waste product.
Key steps in the citric acid cycle:
- Acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate
- A series of enzyme-controlled reactions gradually convert citrate back to oxaloacetate
- Dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons
- Hydrogen ions and electrons are passed to NAD+, forming NADH
- NADH transfers hydrogen ions and electrons to the electron transport chain
Definition: Citric acid cycle - A series of chemical reactions in cellular respiration that generates electron carriers and carbon dioxide from the breakdown of acetyl groups.
Highlight: The citric acid cycle is an aerobic process, occurring only in the presence of oxygen.
Vocabulary: Oxaloacetate - A four-carbon molecule that combines with the acetyl group to initiate the citric acid cycle.
Stage 1 - Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm of cells. This process breaks down glucose into pyruvate and can occur in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Key aspects of glycolysis:
- Consists of two main stages: Energy Investment and Energy Pay-off
- Energy Investment stage uses 2 ATP molecules to phosphorylate glucose
- Energy Pay-off stage generates 4 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules
- Net gain of 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
- Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is further broken down to acetyl-CoA
Definition: Glycolysis - The metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Example: In the Energy Pay-off stage, 4 ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP molecules after subtracting the 2 ATP used in the Energy Investment stage.
Highlight: Glycolysis can occur in both the presence and absence of oxygen, making it a versatile energy-producing pathway for cells.
Mitochondria and Respiration Key Enzymes
Mitochondria play a crucial role in cellular respiration, particularly in cells with high energy demands. The structure and abundance of mitochondria are adapted to meet these energy requirements.
Key points about mitochondria and respiration enzymes:
- Cells with high energy needs have numerous mitochondria
- Mitochondria in these cells often have more folds in the inner membrane, increasing surface area for electron transport chains
- Dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons, passing them to NAD+
- NAD+ acts as a hydrogen acceptor and carrier, forming NADH
- NADH transfers hydrogen to the final stage of respiration, regenerating NAD+
Vocabulary: Dehydrogenase - An enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons from substrates during cellular respiration.
Definition: NAD+ - A coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor and carrier in cellular respiration.
Highlight: The increased surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane in cells with high energy demands allows for more frequent and efficient electron transport chain activity.
Cellular Respiration Overview
Cellular respiration is a fundamental process in living organisms that breaks down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP. This energy is essential for various cellular functions and metabolic processes.
Key aspects of cellular respiration:
- ATP is the primary energy currency used by cells
- Energy from ATP is required for processes such as muscular contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis
- Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain
- The process is more efficient when oxygen is present
- ATP is regenerated through phosphorylation, adding a phosphate group to ADP
Definition: Cellular respiration - The metabolic process by which cells break down glucose through a series of enzyme-controlled reactions to release energy in the form of ATP.
Example: ATP is used for various cellular processes, including active transport across cell membranes and the synthesis of new proteins.
Highlight: The presence of oxygen allows for more energy to be released during cellular respiration compared to anaerobic processes.
Stage 3 - Electron Transport Chain
The electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration, occurring on the inner mitochondrial membrane. This process is responsible for producing the majority of ATP in aerobic respiration.
Key features of the electron transport chain include:
- A series of carrier proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane
- Transfer of electrons along the chain, releasing energy
- Pumping of hydrogen ions across the membrane, creating a concentration gradient
- Flow of hydrogen ions back through ATP synthase, driving ATP production
- Combination of hydrogen ions and electrons with oxygen to form water
Vocabulary: ATP synthase - A membrane protein that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP using the energy from the flow of hydrogen ions.
Highlight: The bulk of ATP production occurs due to the action of ATP synthase, which is driven by the return flow of hydrogen ions across the mitochondrial membrane.
Example: The rotation of part of the ATP synthase protein, caused by the flow of hydrogen ions, catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
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This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
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In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
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very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
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I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
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THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
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This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Higher Human Biology: Cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, and the Citric Acid Cycle
I
Isla .
@isla._hrgc
Higher Human Biology respiration is a complex process that occurs in cells to break down glucose and release energy. This process involves three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. These stages... Show more
Stage 2 - Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle, takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. This stage is crucial for generating electron carriers and carbon dioxide as a waste product.
Key steps in the citric acid cycle:
- Acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate
- A series of enzyme-controlled reactions gradually convert citrate back to oxaloacetate
- Dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons
- Hydrogen ions and electrons are passed to NAD+, forming NADH
- NADH transfers hydrogen ions and electrons to the electron transport chain
Definition: Citric acid cycle - A series of chemical reactions in cellular respiration that generates electron carriers and carbon dioxide from the breakdown of acetyl groups.
Highlight: The citric acid cycle is an aerobic process, occurring only in the presence of oxygen.
Vocabulary: Oxaloacetate - A four-carbon molecule that combines with the acetyl group to initiate the citric acid cycle.
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Stage 1 - Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm of cells. This process breaks down glucose into pyruvate and can occur in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Key aspects of glycolysis:
- Consists of two main stages: Energy Investment and Energy Pay-off
- Energy Investment stage uses 2 ATP molecules to phosphorylate glucose
- Energy Pay-off stage generates 4 ATP molecules and 2 NADH molecules
- Net gain of 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
- Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is further broken down to acetyl-CoA
Definition: Glycolysis - The metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Example: In the Energy Pay-off stage, 4 ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule, resulting in a net gain of 2 ATP molecules after subtracting the 2 ATP used in the Energy Investment stage.
Highlight: Glycolysis can occur in both the presence and absence of oxygen, making it a versatile energy-producing pathway for cells.
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Mitochondria and Respiration Key Enzymes
Mitochondria play a crucial role in cellular respiration, particularly in cells with high energy demands. The structure and abundance of mitochondria are adapted to meet these energy requirements.
Key points about mitochondria and respiration enzymes:
- Cells with high energy needs have numerous mitochondria
- Mitochondria in these cells often have more folds in the inner membrane, increasing surface area for electron transport chains
- Dehydrogenase enzymes remove hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons, passing them to NAD+
- NAD+ acts as a hydrogen acceptor and carrier, forming NADH
- NADH transfers hydrogen to the final stage of respiration, regenerating NAD+
Vocabulary: Dehydrogenase - An enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and high-energy electrons from substrates during cellular respiration.
Definition: NAD+ - A coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor and carrier in cellular respiration.
Highlight: The increased surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane in cells with high energy demands allows for more frequent and efficient electron transport chain activity.
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Cellular Respiration Overview
Cellular respiration is a fundamental process in living organisms that breaks down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP. This energy is essential for various cellular functions and metabolic processes.
Key aspects of cellular respiration:
- ATP is the primary energy currency used by cells
- Energy from ATP is required for processes such as muscular contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis
- Cellular respiration occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain
- The process is more efficient when oxygen is present
- ATP is regenerated through phosphorylation, adding a phosphate group to ADP
Definition: Cellular respiration - The metabolic process by which cells break down glucose through a series of enzyme-controlled reactions to release energy in the form of ATP.
Example: ATP is used for various cellular processes, including active transport across cell membranes and the synthesis of new proteins.
Highlight: The presence of oxygen allows for more energy to be released during cellular respiration compared to anaerobic processes.
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Stage 3 - Electron Transport Chain
The electron transport chain is the final stage of cellular respiration, occurring on the inner mitochondrial membrane. This process is responsible for producing the majority of ATP in aerobic respiration.
Key features of the electron transport chain include:
- A series of carrier proteins embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane
- Transfer of electrons along the chain, releasing energy
- Pumping of hydrogen ions across the membrane, creating a concentration gradient
- Flow of hydrogen ions back through ATP synthase, driving ATP production
- Combination of hydrogen ions and electrons with oxygen to form water
Vocabulary: ATP synthase - A membrane protein that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP using the energy from the flow of hydrogen ions.
Highlight: The bulk of ATP production occurs due to the action of ATP synthase, which is driven by the return flow of hydrogen ions across the mitochondrial membrane.
Example: The rotation of part of the ATP synthase protein, caused by the flow of hydrogen ions, catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.
Students love us — and so will you.
4.9/5
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user