Cell Structure and Transport

Ever wondered how we can see tiny cells that are invisible to the naked eye? Light microscopes can magnify up to 2000 times and show details as small as 200nm, whilst electron microscopes are absolute powerhouses that magnify up to 2 million times with incredible detail down to 0.2nm.

All animal cells share the same basic parts: a nucleus (the control centre with genetic material), cytoplasm (where reactions happen), cell membrane (the bouncer controlling what gets in and out), mitochondria (the powerhouses making energy), and ribosomes (protein factories). Plant cells have all these plus extras: a tough cellulose cell wall for support, chloroplasts to capture sunlight, and a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap.

The big difference between cell types is how they organise their genetic material. Eukaryotic cells (like plants and animals) keep their DNA neatly packaged in a nucleus, whilst prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) have their DNA floating freely as a single loop, plus extra rings called plasmids.

Key Point: As organisms grow, cells become specialised through differentiation - nerve cells develop long connections, muscle cells pack in extra mitochondria for energy, and root hair cells grow massive surface areas for absorption.

Transport Processes

Think of diffusion as nature's way of spreading things out evenly - particles naturally move from crowded areas to less crowded ones without any energy needed. This is how oxygen gets into your cells and carbon dioxide gets out. Temperature and concentration differences speed up this process.

Osmosis is diffusion's water-loving cousin - it's specifically about water moving through semi-permeable membranes from areas with lots of water to areas with less water. This keeps plant cells nice and rigid (called turgor) and prevents animal cells from bursting or shrivelling up.

Sometimes cells need to work against the flow, and that's where active transport comes in. This process uses energy to move substances from low to high concentration areas - like plant roots grabbing mineral ions from soil or your gut absorbing sugar into your bloodstream.

Key Point: Single-celled organisms have it easy with their large surface area to volume ratio, but multicellular organisms need complex exchange surfaces with thin walls, good blood supplies, and proper ventilation to get materials where they need to go.

Cell Division and Organisation

Your body contains an incredible 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs (one from each parent), and these are made of DNA sections called genes that determine your characteristics. When cells need to multiply, they use mitosis - a three-stage process where DNA copies itself, chromosomes separate, and two identical cells form.

Mitosis is absolutely crucial for growth, repairing damage, and replacing worn-out cells. Animal cells specialise early in development, but plants keep meristems in their shoots and roots that can produce new cells throughout their entire lives.

Stem cells are the superstars of biology - embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells from bone marrow can potentially become any type of cell. This makes them incredibly valuable for treating conditions like paralysis and diabetes, though their use raises important ethical questions.

Your body is brilliantly organised into levels: tissues (groups of similar cells), organs (collections of tissues), and organ systems (organs working together). The digestive system includes your stomach for mixing food, pancreas for enzymes, liver for bile production, small intestine for absorption, and large intestine for water recovery.

Key Point: Therapeutic cloning could produce stem cells with your exact genes, preventing rejection issues in medical treatments.

Nutrition and Enzymes

Your body runs on three main fuel types: carbohydrates for quick energy (found in bread and pasta), lipids for long-term energy storage (oils and butter), and proteins for building and repairing cells (meat and fish). You can test foods using Benedict's solution for sugars, iodine for starch, Biuret solution for proteins, and ethanol for fats.

Enzymes are your body's specialist workers - these biological catalysts speed up specific reactions using the lock and key theory. Each enzyme has a unique active site that only fits certain molecules, like a key fitting one specific lock.

Temperature and pH massively affect enzyme activity. Too hot or the wrong pH denatures enzymes by changing their protein structure, making them useless. Your digestive system cleverly manages this - stomach proteases love acidic conditions, whilst pancreatic enzymes need alkaline conditions (helped by bile from the liver).

Three key digestive enzymes break down your food: carbohydrases (like amylase) chop carbohydrates into sugars, proteases slice proteins into amino acids, and lipases split lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Key Point: Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions happening in your body right now, and enzymes control the speed of these vital processes.

Circulatory System

Your circulatory system is like a sophisticated transport network with three main components. Blood contains yellow plasma (the liquid transport medium), red blood cells packed with haemoglobin for oxygen transport, white blood cells for protection, and platelets for blood clotting.

Blood vessels have different jobs and structures: arteries carry oxygenated blood away from your heart under high pressure with thick walls, veins return deoxygenated blood with valves preventing backflow, and tiny capillaries allow gas exchange with body cells.

Your heart pumps blood through two circuits - from lungs via pulmonary vein to left atrium, left ventricle, then aorta to the body, returning via vena cava to right atrium, right ventricle, and pulmonary artery back to lungs.

Modern medicine can fix heart problems using stents to keep arteries open, statins to reduce cholesterol, replacement valves, and artificial pacemakers for irregular rhythms. Your lungs work perfectly with the heart - alveoli provide massive surface area with rich capillary networks for efficient gas exchange.

Key Point: Plant transport systems mirror animals - xylem moves water and minerals upwards, phloem transports sugars around the plant, and transpiration through stomata drives water movement.

Communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases spread between people through pathogens - bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that cause havoc in different ways. Bacteria multiply rapidly and release toxins, whilst viruses hijack your cells to reproduce, causing cellular damage.

Simple hygiene measures like handwashing (discovered by Ignaz Semmelweis in the 1850s) dramatically reduce disease spread. Measles virus spreads through droplets causing fever and rashes - vaccination and isolation help control outbreaks. HIV starts with flu-like symptoms but can progress to AIDS without antiretroviral drugs.

Plant diseases matter too: Tobacco mosaic virus damages leaves and reduces photosynthesis, Salmonella bacteria from undercooked food causes nasty digestive symptoms, Gonorrhoea spreads sexually but responds to antibiotics, and Rose black spot fungus makes leaves drop off plants.

Malaria deserves special mention - this parasitic protist spreads through female mosquito bites, damages blood and liver cells, and kills millions annually. Prevention focuses on nets and eliminating mosquito breeding sites.

Key Point: Your body has amazing defences including skin barriers, antimicrobial nose secretions, and white blood cells that ingest pathogens, make antibodies, and produce antitoxins.

Disease Prevention and Treatment

Vaccination is one of medicine's greatest achievements - by introducing dead or inactive pathogens, your immune system learns to recognise threats and responds rapidly to real infections. Herd immunity protects entire populations when enough people are vaccinated.

Understanding the difference between treatments is crucial: painkillers manage symptoms but don't kill pathogens, whilst antibiotics actually destroy bacteria (but are useless against viruses). Antibiotic resistance is growing due to overuse, making this a serious global concern.

Penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming from Penicillium mould, revolutionised medicine. Most modern drugs start as plant or microorganism extracts before chemists modify them for better effectiveness.

Drug development takes up to 12 years and follows strict stages: preclinical trials test on cells, tissues, and animals, followed by clinical trials on healthy volunteers then patients. Double-blind trials use placebos to ensure results are genuine - neither patients nor doctors know who receives the real drug.

Key Point: The immune system's memory is incredible - once white blood cells learn to make specific antibodies against a pathogen, they can respond almost instantly to future infections.

Non-Communicable Diseases and Cancer

Non-communicable diseases don't spread between people but result from lifestyle choices, genetics, or environmental factors. Cancer occurs when cell division goes wrong - benign tumours stay put and aren't cancerous, whilst malignant tumours spread to other body parts creating secondary tumours.

Smoking is devastating for health, causing cardiovascular disease, coronary heart disease, lung cancer, bronchitis, and COPD. Pregnant smokers risk premature birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth due to restricted oxygen supply to the foetus.

Diet and exercise significantly impact disease risk. Poor diet leads to high cholesterol and obesity, increasing cardiovascular disease risk and type 2 diabetes likelihood. Regular exercise provides protection against these conditions.

Alcohol damages the liver causing cirrhosis and liver cancer, plus brain damage in extreme cases. Drinking during pregnancy affects unborn baby development, emphasising how lifestyle choices impact others.

Key Point: Many non-communicable diseases have causal mechanisms - we understand exactly how smoking causes cancer or how poor diet leads to heart disease, making prevention possible through lifestyle changes.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process that feeds our planet - plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. This endothermic reaction (absorbing heat) happens in chloroplasts and literally captures solar energy for life on Earth.

Leaves are perfectly designed for photosynthesis: broad surfaces capture maximum sunlight, chlorophyll absorbs light energy, thin structure allows easy gas diffusion, air spaces let carbon dioxide reach cells, veins transport water in and sugars out, and guard cells control stomata opening.

Three factors limit photosynthesis rate: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. Too much heat denatures the enzymes involved, completely stopping the process. Understanding these limiting factors helps farmers optimise crop growth.

Plants use their glucose cleverly: some for respiration to release energy, some converted to starch for storage, some made into cellulose for cell walls, some turned into fats and oils, and some combined with nitrate ions from soil to make amino acids for proteins.

Key Point: Photosynthesis is essentially the opposite of respiration - plants make glucose using light energy, then break it down to release energy when needed.

Respiration

Respiration powers every cell in your body - this exothermic reaction happens in mitochondria, breaking down glucose with oxygen to release energy, carbon dioxide, and water. It's the complete opposite of photosynthesis and keeps you alive every second.

During exercise, your energy demands skyrocket. Your body responds brilliantly: heart rate increases, breathing rate and volume increase, glycogen stores convert to glucose, and more oxygenated blood flows to muscles. This coordinated response ensures your cells get the fuel they need.

When muscles work extremely hard, oxygen runs out and anaerobic respiration kicks in. This process produces lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide and generates much less energy, explaining why you feel tired and your muscles burn during intense exercise.

Anaerobic respiration in yeast produces ethanol and carbon dioxide - the basis for brewing and baking. Your body uses respiration energy for metabolic reactions: converting glucose to storage compounds, making lipids, producing amino acids from glucose and nitrates, and breaking down excess proteins into urea.

Key Point: Aerobic respiration is far more efficient than anaerobic - you get about 19 times more energy when oxygen is available, explaining why you can't sprint forever!