Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses

This page delves into monohybrid and dihybrid cross inheritance of two genes, explaining how to determine genotypes and phenotypes in offspring.

The monohybrid cross section explains the 3:1 ratio observed in F2 generations when crossing heterozygous parents. It also introduces the concept of test crosses, used to determine unknown genotypes.

Definition: A test cross involves crossing an individual with an unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine if the unknown is homozygous dominant or heterozygous.

The dihybrid cross example demonstrates the inheritance of two different genes simultaneously. It explains the 9:3:3:1 ratio observed in the F2 generation when crossing individuals heterozygous for both traits.

Example: In a dihybrid cross between round, yellow peas $RRYY$ and wrinkled, green peas $rryy$, the F1 generation will all be RrYy. The F2 generation will show a 9:3:3:1 ratio of phenotypes.

The page also introduces the concept of autosomal linkage, where genes located on the same autosome are more likely to be inherited together.

Sex Linkage and Epistasis

This page covers sex-linked inheritance and gene interactions, specifically focusing on epistasis.

Sex linkage is explained, highlighting that genes carried on the X chromosome can lead to different inheritance patterns in males and females.

Highlight: Males are more likely to express recessive sex-linked conditions, such as hemophilia, as they only need one copy of the recessive allele on their single X chromosome.

The concept of epistasis is introduced, describing how one gene can suppress or modify the expression of another gene.

Definition: Epistasis is the interaction between genes where one gene $the epistatic gene$ masks or modifies the expression of another gene $the hypostatic gene$.

The page explains that epistatic interactions can be either dominant or recessive, affecting the phenotypic expression of traits controlled by multiple genes.

Chi-Square Test and Population Genetics

This page introduces statistical analysis in genetics using the chi-square test and explores the fundamentals of population genetics.

The chi-square test is explained as a method to determine the probability of unexpected results being due to chance rather than being statistically significant.

Vocabulary: The chi-square test formula is presented as χ² = Σ$(O-E$²/E), where O is the observed value and E is the expected value.

The page then transitions to population genetics, introducing concepts such as gene pool and allele frequency.

Definition: The gene pool refers to the total number of genes of every individual in an interbreeding population.

The Hardy-Weinberg principle is introduced as a model predicting that allele frequencies will not change from generation to generation under specific conditions.

Highlight: The Hardy-Weinberg equation $p² + 2pq + q² = 1$ is used to calculate the frequencies of genotypes in a population, where p represents the frequency of the dominant allele and q represents the frequency of the recessive allele.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle and Evolution

This page continues the discussion on the Hardy-Weinberg principle and introduces concepts related to evolution and speciation.

The page provides an example calculation using the Hardy-Weinberg equation to determine allele and genotype frequencies in a population.

Example: In a population where 9% of individuals show a recessive trait, the frequency of the recessive allele $q$ is calculated as √0.09 = 0.3, and the frequency of the dominant allele $p$ is 1 - 0.3 = 0.7.

The document then transitions to discussing evolution and speciation, emphasizing the role of genetic variation in populations.

Highlight: Phenotypic variation within populations is due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors, with mutation being the primary source of new genetic variation.

The effects of selection on allele frequencies are briefly mentioned, noting that not all individuals can survive due to factors such as disease, predation, and competition.

Speciation and Genetic Drift

This page focuses on the processes of speciation and genetic drift in evolutionary biology.

Speciation is explained as the evolution of new species from existing ones when genetic differences prevent members of populations from interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

Definition: Allopatric speciation occurs when a population is geographically separated, leading to genetic divergence due to different environmental pressures and selection.

Definition: Sympatric speciation happens when populations become reproductively isolated over time due to differences in behavior or random mutations, without geographical separation.

The page also introduces the concept of genetic drift, describing it as the change in allele frequency within a population between generations.

Highlight: Genetic drift can have a significant impact on small populations, potentially leading to the loss of genetic diversity.

This comprehensive overview of genetics, from basic inheritance patterns to complex evolutionary processes, provides students with a solid foundation in genetic principles and their applications in understanding biological diversity and change.

Page 7: Speciation Mechanisms

The page details different types of speciation and how new species evolve over time.

Definition: Speciation is the evolution of new species from existing ones when genetic differences prevent interbreeding.

Vocabulary: Allopatric speciation occurs when populations are geographically separated, while sympatric speciation happens within the same area.

Page 8: Genetic Drift

This final page introduces genetic drift as a mechanism of evolutionary change.

Definition: Genetic drift represents random changes in allele frequencies within populations between generations.

Highlight: Genetic drift can significantly impact small populations' genetic makeup over time.

Inheritance and Genetic Concepts

This page introduces fundamental concepts in genetics, focusing on the relationship between genotype and phenotype. It explains key terms essential for understanding inheritance patterns and genetic variations.

Vocabulary: Genotype refers to the genetic constitution of an organism, while phenotype is the expression of the genotype and its interaction with the environment.

The page discusses the concept of alleles, which are variants of genes resulting from mutations. It explains that chromosomes form pairs called homologous chromosomes in diploid organisms.

Example: In the case of cystic fibrosis, the normal allele $C$ is dominant, while the cystic fibrosis allele $c$ is recessive. Genotypes can be CC $homozygous dominant$, Cc $heterozygous$, or cc $homozygous recessive$.

The document also introduces the concept of codominance, where both alleles are equally expressed and dominant in the phenotype.

Highlight: Blood type AB is an example of codominance, where both A and B alleles are expressed.