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Responding to change (a2 only)
Infection and response
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Organisms respond to changes in their internal and external environments (a-level only)
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Britain & the wider world: 1745 -1901
1l the quest for political stability: germany, 1871-1991
The cold war
Inter-war germany
Medieval period: 1066 -1509
2d religious conflict and the church in england, c1529-c1570
2o democracy and nazism: germany, 1918-1945
1f industrialisation and the people: britain, c1783-1885
1c the tudors: england, 1485-1603
2m wars and welfare: britain in transition, 1906-1957
World war two & the holocaust
2n revolution and dictatorship: russia, 1917-1953
2s the making of modern britain, 1951-2007
World war one
Britain: 1509 -1745
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29 Nov 2025
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The reactivity series helps us understand how readily different metals... Show more
Metals vary greatly in their reactivity levels. The most reactive metals are found in Groups 1, 2 and 3 of the periodic table, including potassium, sodium, calcium and aluminium. Transition metals like iron, copper and zinc have medium reactivity, while gold, silver and platinum are notably unreactive.
When metals react with oxygen, they form metal oxides through a process called oxidation. The chemical equation follows the pattern: Metal + oxygen → metal oxide. For example, magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to form magnesium oxide .
Group 1 metals like potassium, sodium and lithium react extremely vigorously with oxygen even at room temperature. Medium-reactive metals like magnesium, zinc and iron react more slowly or require heating. The least reactive metals like gold and platinum don't react with oxygen at all.
Remember: The more reactive a metal is, the more vigorously it reacts with oxygen. Group 1 metals can be dangerous to handle because they react so readily with both oxygen and water!
Reactive metals can displace hydrogen from water through the reaction: Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen. The highly reactive metals potassium, sodium and lithium react immediately with cold water, producing hydrogen bubbles. Potassium even burns with a distinctive purple flame during this reaction!
When metals react with acids, they follow the pattern: Metal + acid → metal salt + hydrogen. You'll observe bubbling as hydrogen gas is released, and the metal will gradually dissolve. Extremely reactive metals (potassium, sodium, lithium) react violently with acids, while calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron react steadily.
Displacement reactions occur when a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive metal in a compound. For example, when zinc is added to copper sulphate solution, zinc displaces copper because it's more reactive. You'll observe the blue solution becoming colourless as zinc sulphate forms, while solid copper appears as a brown deposit.
Quick tip: In displacement reactions, remember OIL RIG - Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons. The more reactive metal loses electrons (oxidised) while the less reactive metal gains electrons (reduced).
How we extract metals from their ores depends entirely on the metal's reactivity. If a metal is less reactive than carbon, we can extract it using reduction with carbon. This method won't work for highly reactive metals.
In reduction with carbon, the metal oxide reacts with carbon to produce the pure metal and carbon dioxide. For example: Copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon dioxide . During this process, copper oxide is reduced (it loses oxygen), while carbon is oxidised (it gains oxygen).
Looking at the electron transfer helps us understand what's happening. Copper starts as a 2+ ion (Cu²⁺) and ends with no charge (Cu), meaning it has gained electrons. Carbon loses electrons as it changes from an element to a compound, becoming oxidised.
Important concept: For metals more reactive than carbon (like aluminium, calcium and sodium), we must use electrolysis instead of carbon reduction. This requires more energy, making these metals more expensive to extract.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The reactivity series helps us understand how readily different metals react with substances like oxygen, water, and acids. This determines which metals can displace others in reactions and impacts how we extract metals from their ores. Let's explore how metals... Show more
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Metals vary greatly in their reactivity levels. The most reactive metals are found in Groups 1, 2 and 3 of the periodic table, including potassium, sodium, calcium and aluminium. Transition metals like iron, copper and zinc have medium reactivity, while gold, silver and platinum are notably unreactive.
When metals react with oxygen, they form metal oxides through a process called oxidation. The chemical equation follows the pattern: Metal + oxygen → metal oxide. For example, magnesium burns brightly in oxygen to form magnesium oxide .
Group 1 metals like potassium, sodium and lithium react extremely vigorously with oxygen even at room temperature. Medium-reactive metals like magnesium, zinc and iron react more slowly or require heating. The least reactive metals like gold and platinum don't react with oxygen at all.
Remember: The more reactive a metal is, the more vigorously it reacts with oxygen. Group 1 metals can be dangerous to handle because they react so readily with both oxygen and water!
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Join milions of students
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Reactive metals can displace hydrogen from water through the reaction: Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen. The highly reactive metals potassium, sodium and lithium react immediately with cold water, producing hydrogen bubbles. Potassium even burns with a distinctive purple flame during this reaction!
When metals react with acids, they follow the pattern: Metal + acid → metal salt + hydrogen. You'll observe bubbling as hydrogen gas is released, and the metal will gradually dissolve. Extremely reactive metals (potassium, sodium, lithium) react violently with acids, while calcium, magnesium, zinc and iron react steadily.
Displacement reactions occur when a more reactive metal takes the place of a less reactive metal in a compound. For example, when zinc is added to copper sulphate solution, zinc displaces copper because it's more reactive. You'll observe the blue solution becoming colourless as zinc sulphate forms, while solid copper appears as a brown deposit.
Quick tip: In displacement reactions, remember OIL RIG - Oxidation Is Loss of electrons, Reduction Is Gain of electrons. The more reactive metal loses electrons (oxidised) while the less reactive metal gains electrons (reduced).
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How we extract metals from their ores depends entirely on the metal's reactivity. If a metal is less reactive than carbon, we can extract it using reduction with carbon. This method won't work for highly reactive metals.
In reduction with carbon, the metal oxide reacts with carbon to produce the pure metal and carbon dioxide. For example: Copper oxide + carbon → copper + carbon dioxide . During this process, copper oxide is reduced (it loses oxygen), while carbon is oxidised (it gains oxygen).
Looking at the electron transfer helps us understand what's happening. Copper starts as a 2+ ion (Cu²⁺) and ends with no charge (Cu), meaning it has gained electrons. Carbon loses electrons as it changes from an element to a compound, becoming oxidised.
Important concept: For metals more reactive than carbon (like aluminium, calcium and sodium), we must use electrolysis instead of carbon reduction. This requires more energy, making these metals more expensive to extract.
Our AI Companion is a student-focused AI tool that offers more than just answers. Built on millions of Knowunity resources, it provides relevant information, personalised study plans, quizzes, and content directly in the chat, adapting to your individual learning journey.
You can download the app from Google Play Store and Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
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Electron (Redox) reduction
ChemistryExplore the fundamentals of redox reactions, including definitions of oxidation and reduction, the roles of oxidising and reducing agents, and their positions in the electrochemical series. This summary covers key concepts such as electronegativity trends, examples of common oxidising and reducing agents, and practical applications in chemistry. Ideal for Higher Chemistry students.
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
Best app on earth! no words because it’s too good
Thomas R
iOS user
Just amazing. Let's me revise 10x better, this app is a quick 10/10. I highly recommend it to anyone. I can watch and search for notes. I can save them in the subject folder. I can revise it any time when I come back. If you haven't tried this app, you're really missing out.
Basil
Android user
This app has made me feel so much more confident in my exam prep, not only through boosting my own self confidence through the features that allow you to connect with others and feel less alone, but also through the way the app itself is centred around making you feel better. It is easy to navigate, fun to use, and helpful to anyone struggling in absolutely any way.
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
very reliable app to help and grow your ideas of Maths, English and other related topics in your works. please use this app if your struggling in areas, this app is key for that. wish I'd of done a review before. and it's also free so don't worry about that.
Rohan U
Android user
I know a lot of apps use fake accounts to boost their reviews but this app deserves it all. Originally I was getting 4 in my English exams and this time I got a grade 7. I didn’t even know about this app three days until the exam and it has helped A LOT. Please actually trust me and use it as I’m sure you too will see developments.
Xander S
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This apps acc the goat. I find revision so boring but this app makes it so easy to organize it all and then you can ask the freeeee ai to test yourself so good and you can easily upload your own stuff. highly recommend as someone taking mocks now
Paul T
iOS user
Sociology